Spirulina platensis: A comprehensive review of its nutritional value,antioxidant activity and functional food potential

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Spirulina platensis is a well-known photosynthetic prokaryotic alga that has gained recognition in various industries, including food, health, aquaculture and pharmaceuticals. The United Nations acknowledged spirulina as a nutritious food source because of its rich pigments and high protein content.

OBJECTIVE:

This paper aims to provide an overview of how Spirulina is utilized as both a dietary supplement as well as functional food ingredient in the food industry.

METHOD:

Spirulina powder can be added to various foods such as bread, cakes and cookies to increase the nutritional value. It is particularly valuable as a dietary supplement in efforts to combat malnutrition in impoverished regions.

RESULT:

Spirulina platensis is also a source of essential components used in the therapeutic microalgae supplement market. These components include alpha-carotene, astaxanthin, polyunsaturated fatty acids (such as DHA and EPA) and polysaccharides like beta-glucan.

CONCLUSION:

It is evident that the consumption of spirulina algae can offer both financial benefits and health advantages. Even though there is a large amount of research on the nutritional, environmental and social benefits of spirulina, some natural areas still produce insufficient amounts of the algae. As a result, more and more scientists and researchers throughout the world are pushing for the growth of spirulina farming.

Keywords

Spirulina functional food dietary supplement bioactive compounds antioxidants

1 Introduction

Spirulina, comprising two cyanobacteria species, Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima, holds the distinction of being the most renowned genus within its phylum. Recognized by the trade name Spirulina, it stands as the most extensively cultivated microalgae globally, contributing to over 30 percent of the total microalgae biomass worldwide [1]. Spirulina is a type of algae that is widely consumed as a food supplement. Spirulina serves as a valuable reservoir of amino acids, the fundamental constituents of proteins. Additionally, it encompasses polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), essential minerals, and vitamins. PUFAs, crucial for overall health and cellular functioning, are fatty acids that the body is unable to synthesize independently. Minerals and vitamins are essential nutrients that are needed for good health [2].

In the present day, the food manufacturing sector requires fresh sources of food ingredients derived from natural origins. This involves creating innovative functional foods or nutraceuticals. Microalgae are currently at the intersection of conventional and modern biotechnologies. These tiny algae can provide proteins, biochemical, lipids, polysaccharides, and colorants, offering a versatile source of raw materials for various purposes in the industry [3]. Dried Spirulina’s chemical makeup comprises approximately 60–70 percent crucial elements, including proteins, carbohydrates, and essential vitamins such as provitamin A and vitamin E. Additionally, it contains a spectrum of minerals, including iron, calcium, chromium, copper, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and zinc. Additionally, this microalga provides essential fatty acid g-linolenic acid (GLA), along with pigments like chlorophyll A, phycocyanin, and carotenes. Apart from its nutritional value, Spirulina finds applications in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and wastewater treatment. Its cell wall is made up of easily digestible polysaccharides, boasting an 86 percent digestibility rate, making these nutrients highly absorbable by the human body [4]. Spirulina doesn’t possess the ability to fix nitrogen. Its cell wall is composed of mucopolysaccharide, giving it a soft texture and enabling easy digestion, ensuring its suitability for human consumption. Spirulina can thrive in environments with elevated alkalinity, provided there’s a presence of carbonate, bicarbonates, and inorganic nitrogen [5]. In the United States, dried Spirulina is marketed as a health food and generates roughly 40 million dollars in annual sales. Spirulina stands out as an incredibly nourishing and potent food source for humans, encompassing antioxidants, phytonutrients, probiotics, and health-enhancing compounds. Its remarkable nutritional profile positions it as a versatile solution for a wide range of dietary needs. Recognizing its impressive nutrient makeup, Spirulina has gained attention for its potential therapeutic applications. Notably, the United Nations’ global food conference officially designated Spirulina as a top contender for future sustenance, contributing to its increasing popularity in contemporary times [6]. Spirulina stands out as one of the top trends in the food industry. Currently, microalgae are increasingly being utilized in various food products, resulting in a notable rise in the quantity of such items available in the market. However, it’s important to note that the majority of these products incorporate microalgae primarily for purposes such as providing color or as part of their marketing strategy [7]. This protein content is approximately 60 percent [8]. It was found that the amount of protein content is 69 percent higher of the cell mass under air based method conditions [9].

2 Spirulina as potential source of functional foods

Numerous investigations have indicated that the physiologically active hydrophilic and lipophilic chemicals found in spirulina have therapeutic benefits on both tissue and blood cells. Hydrophilic substances like phenols, vitamins and polysaccharides, along with hydrophobic compounds such as chlorophyll, lipids and fatty acids, possess bioactive qualities, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antioxidant properties [10]. Functional foods can offer extra health advantages as they often contain bioactive compounds. These are natural substances found in plants, animals, or microorganisms, and they can be beneficial for human well-being. The rapid increase in the global population has led to a necessity to explore alternative and sustainable food sources beyond traditional agriculture. The increasing population demands a focus on nourishing foods to fulfill dietary requirements. Throughout history, people have turned to natural products as dietary supplements, with the World Health Organization (WHO) suggesting that roughly 80 percent of the global population relies on traditional approaches for their fundamental health necessities [11]. Microorganisms, particularly spirulina, represent an underutilized resource due to their secondary metabolites that offer nutritional or therapeutic benefits. The commercial need of spirulina dates back to the early days of human civilization, driven by their diverse properties that make them a promising source of functional foods. Spirulina holds promise in the creation of functional foods due to its numerous health-promoting advantages when incorporated into diets. As an excellent source of minerals, vitamins and antioxidants, it also contains phycocyanin (PC), carotenoids, tocopherols and phenolic compounds. The Arthrospira platensis is well-known for its high biological activity since it contains numerous compounds that may have antitumor effects. Compounds derived from Arthrospira species often function as anticancer medicines by preventing tumor cell growth, initiating cell cycle arrest, and causing apoptosis through several signaling pathways [12]. Furthermore, these substances demonstrated antimetastatic, antiangiogenic and antioxidant properties [13].

Spirulina offer several appealing qualities as a viable option for sustainable food production (Table 1):

Table 1
Several functional food products have been created by integrating Spirulina platensis

Functional food product Spirulina platensis Reference

Cookies 10–15 percent [14]

Wheat crackers 2 percent and 6 percent [15]

Baby foods 0, 2.5, 6 and 7.5 percent [16]

Low-fat probiotic yogurt 0.1–1 percent [17]

Ice cream 0.15 percent [18]

Soft cheese 0, 1, and 1.5 percent [19]

Yogurt 0, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 2, and 3 percent [20]

Functional yogurt 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5 percent [21]

Pasta 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1 percent [22]

Functional food product	Spirulina platensis	Reference
Cookies	10–15 percent	[14]
Wheat crackers	2 percent and 6 percent	[15]
Baby foods	0, 2.5, 6 and 7.5 percent	[16]
Low-fat probiotic yogurt	0.1–1 percent	[17]
Ice cream	0.15 percent	[18]
Soft cheese	0, 1, and 1.5 percent	[19]
Yogurt	0, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 2, and 3 percent	[20]
Functional yogurt	0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5 percent	[21]
Pasta	0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1 percent	[22]

Cyanobacteria, particularly Spirulina, stand out for their high nutritional content, making them an excellent choice for cultivation in the food industry. They are found globally, making them readily available for production in various regions.

Spirulina have the advantage of requiring minimal water for growth, with the option of using saltwater.

They can thrive on relatively small plots of land, including barren or infertile areas unsuitable for other crop types.

Spirulina are easily digestible, enhancing their suitability as a food source.

These microorganisms demonstrate product stability across a broad range of pH levels and temperatures, further supporting their potential for sustainable food production.

2.1 Health benefits of spirulina

Arthrospira platensis has significant clinical potential as a food and nutritional supplement or pharmaceutical, attributed to its antiviral properties and ability to boost the body’s immune response against pathogens (Fig. 1). The observed pharmacological effects encompass immunomodulation, antioxidant properties, antiviral effects and applications in managing allergies, rhinitis, diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Additionally, seaweed exhibits potential medical uses against conditions such as anemia, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and malignant formations [23]. The chemical makeup of spirulina, encompassing minerals (notably iron), phenols, phycocyanins, and polysaccharides, offers significant advantages to human health. Present clinical evidence indicates no adverse health effects linked to spirulina consumption, as affirmed by the Convention on Dietary Supplements [24]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has verified that spirulina is not only recognized as a nutritious food due to its rich iron and protein levels but is also deemed safe for children, without any reported side effects [25].

Fig. 1

Health benefits of spirulina [23].

3 Nutritional analysis of spirulina platensis

Spirulina stands out as a natural source with an exceptionally high protein content, surpassing meat by a factor of five. This remarkable alga provides a comprehensive array of both essential and non-essential amino acids, featuring a well-balanced amino acid profile. It also has the characteristic of being rich in beta-carotene, which is an indicator of vitamin A. Spirulina is a plant source of vitamin B12, containing 2.5 times the amount found in the liver. It is also a source of γ-linolenic acid, an essential fatty acid, which plays a pivotal part within the generation of hormones that direct different real functions. The composition of spirulina is protein (in the range of 50–70 percent), including all amino acids, essential fatty acids, polysaccharides, beta-carotene and especially vitamin B12 and minerals, especially iron [26].

Spirulina boasts an impressive nutrient profile when compared to various other foods:

It contains 180 percent more calcium than whole milk.

When compared to tofu, it provides a remarkable 670 percent more protein.

Spirulina outshines carrots with a whopping 3100 percent more beta carotene, which is a precursor to vitamin A.

In terms of iron content, it surpasses spinach with a staggering 5100 percent more.

Additionally, even just 3 grams of Spirulina offer more antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity than consuming five servings of fruits and vegetables [27].

3.1 Proteins

Spirulina platensis is a rich source of protein because it consists of more essential amino acids (EAAs). EAAs are amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own and must be obtained from food. Spirulina contains about 38.81–47.00 percent EAAs, which is a higher percentage than most plant–based foods. The quantity, ratio and quality of the amino acid content of the protein are used to assess the overall quality of the protein. Spirulina is considered to be a high–quality protein because it contains all nine EAAs in the right proportions [28, 29]. Spirulina contains the highest concentrations of the amino acids leucine, valine, and isoleucine. These amino acids are important for building and repairing muscle tissue. Spirulina also contains all nine EAAs, which are the amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own. This makes spirulina a complete protein, which is a type of protein that contains all nine EAAs in the right proportions. In its amino acid composition, Spirulina surpasses all plant proteins, including legumes. This is because spirulina contains higher levels of the essential amino acids leucine, valine, and isoleucine. Nevertheless, when compared to conventional dietary proteins found in meat, eggs, and milk, spirulina exhibits lower levels of the amino acids methionine, cysteine, and lysine [30]. Spirulina is a blue-green alga that contains a protein called phycobilin. Phycobilin is made up of three proteins: phycocyanin, allophycocyanin and phycoglobin. Leonard and Compere found that spirulina contains approximately 50 percent protein by dry weight [31]. Phycocyanin is found in blue-green algae, it has many beneficial properties, including promoting protein absorption, acting as an antioxidant, fighting tumors, and reducing inflammation. It can also dissipate heat and be used as a natural pigment in food and cosmetics [32].

3.2 Carbohydrates

Research indicates that spirulina species contain approximately 13.6 percent carbohydrates. This means that for every 100 grams of spirulina, about 13.6 grams are carbohydrates. The remaining 86.4 grams are made up of protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients [28, 33]. Spirulina encompasses diverse carbohydrates, comprising glucosamine, rhamnosamine and glycogen polymers, along with minor quantities of glucose, fructose, sucrose, glycerine, mannitol and sorbitol. The majority of digestible carbohydrates consist of the carbohydrates found in spirulina. In the cell walls of spirulina, there are sugars resembling those present in Gram-negative bacteria walls, specifically glucosamine, muramic acid, and glucosamine bound to a peptide. The relatively thin cell walls of spirulina enable digestive enzymes to readily reach the cell contents [28]. Spirulina polysaccharides have the ability to balance the antioxidant system and eliminate free radicals [34]. The antioxidants in spirulina can inhibit oxidative damage in the body. Oxidative damage is a process that can damage cells and tissues, and it is linked to a number of chronic diseases, including diabetes. Spirulina can also increase serum insulin levels. Insulin is a hormone that helps the body to use glucose for energy. Spirulina can also enhance the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). SOD is an enzyme that helps to protect the body against oxidative damage. Finally, spirulina can reduce the levels of MDA. MDA is a marker of oxidative damage [35]. The carbohydrate content of Spirulina algae, cultivated using cost-effective culture media, exhibited variations based on the specific nitrogen source employed in the cultivation medium. To achieve this, scientists substituted all the nutrients present in typical formulations with locally available commercial chemicals and fertilizers. When utilizing a conventional nitrogen source, the initial measurement of the medium’s carbohydrate content was recorded at 13.2 percent. Nevertheless, substituting the nitrogen source with a medium containing urea resulted in an increase in this percentage to 16.01 percent. In media incorporating ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), the carbohydrate concentration notably rises to 24.50 percent when assessed on a dry weight basis. It is noteworthy that various research investigations have identified variations in carbohydrate levels based on the production region and the specific product being developed [36].

3.3 Fats

Spirulina platensis fat content constitutes 5–10 percent of its dry weight, and through more rigorous extraction methods, it has been demonstrated to exceed 11 percent. The fats present in spirulina play a crucial role in human health, with free fatty acids making up 70–80 percent of the total fat. Total lipids can be divided into a saponified fraction (83 percent) and an unsaponified fraction (17 percent). The non-biodegradable fraction consists mainly of paraffins, pigments, terpenic alcohols and sterols. Omega-6 fatty acids are the most abundant of all fats. Spirulina contains high cholesterol (less than 0.1 mg/100 g of dry matter) [28, 30]. Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) is an omega-6 fatty acid that has been shown to have a number of health benefits. GLA can help to reduce blood lipid levels, regulate blood pressure, and lower cholesterol. It also has anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties. GLA is found in some foods, such as evening primrose oil, black currant oil, and borage oil. It can also be taken as a dietary supplement. Gamma-linolenic acid also has antioxidant capabilities, which can help to whiten skin and slow down the signs of aging [37, 38]. Spirulina algae can serve as a valuable source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), notably essential ones like omega-3 and omega-6. Humans are unable to produce these essential fatty acids internally, necessitating their intake through dietary sources. The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have a significant role in preserving our well-being and shielding against diseases. While the human intestinal microbiota can produce certain long-chain fatty acids like linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid, various factors influence this synthesis, underscoring the crucial role of incorporating these fatty acids into the diet for health maintenance and optimal functioning [39]. Linolenic acid stands out as a noteworthy nutrient as it is not commonly present in our regular dietary intake, yet it offers numerous health advantages. The body has the capability to produce linolenic acid by converting another fatty acid known as γ-linolenic acid, which is present in vegetable oils [28]. Spirulina, a blue-green alga, serves as a valuable reservoir of essential fatty acids, with a particular emphasis on gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). GLA, classified as an omega-6 fatty acid, plays a crucial role in hormone regulation and exhibits antioxidant properties. Notably, spirulina is the exclusive food source abundant in GLA, surpassing breast milk, which, while also a good source of essential fatty acids, does not contain as much GLA as spirulina [25 , 40].

3.4 Vitamins

Vitamins are nutrients that the body needs in small amounts. Humans cannot make vitamins on their own, so we have to get them from food. Not getting enough vitamins can lead to health problems. Algae is a great source of vitamins [41]. Research has demonstrated that Spirulina is abundant in vitamins, making it a valuable source of various essential nutrients. Incorporating spirulina into food and beverages has been found to elevate the vitamin content of the product, enhancing both its nutritional value and health benefits. This addition not only increases the number of vitamins but also improves the overall nutritional and health advantages of the product [42]. Falquet and Hurni showed that spirulina contains beta-carotene, which can be converted to vitamin A in the body. Vitamin A intake for nails is less than 1 mg per day, which can be achieved by consuming 1 to 2 grams of spirulina [43]. Spirulina encompasses all the essential vitamins required by humans, comprising vitamin A (in the form of beta-carotene), vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K and various B vitamins like thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, folic acid, and cobalamin [36, 44]. Mogale’s research revealed that vitamin A, and vitamin E present in aqueous extracts of spirulina serve as non-enzymatic antioxidants, safeguarding membrane lipids from oxidative harm. Spirulina is rich in these vitamins, with a content of 18.1 mg of vitamin A per gram. With 3.91 milligrams of vitamin E per gram, the concentrations of these vitamins in spirulina exceed the recommended daily intake for humans [45].

3.5 Minerals

Spirulina serves as an excellent reservoir of vital minerals, including potassium, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium, boron, molybdenum, and zinc. It also contains other important nutritional elements like boron, phosphorus, and selenium. Additionally, it boasts a high concentration of both micronutrients and macronutrients, along with various other nutrients. Due to its nutritional value, products derived from spirulina find applications in agriculture, the food industry, pharmaceuticals, perfumery and medical practices [46]. Spirulina also rich in so many nutrients like moisture, ash, fiber, lipid, carbohydrate and protein as shown in Fig. 2 [47]. Spirulina stands out as an exceptional source of iron (Fe), containing ten times more of this essential mineral compared to other iron-rich foods. It is considered food rich in iron and the most notable fact is that the iron in spirulina is absorbed by the body at a rate almost 60 percent more than that of ferrous sulfate, a type of iron supplement. This heightened iron content in spirulina has led to extensive research, especially in the context of treating iron deficiency, such as anemia, which is particularly relevant for pregnant women and children. One remarkable aspect of spirulina’s iron content is that it doesn’t pose toxicity risks, unlike ferrous sulfate supplements, which can often lead to issues like diarrhea. Unlike some foods like cereals, which contain substances like phytic and oxalic acids that hinder the absorption of iron, spirulina has demonstrated good iron bioavailability in both human and animal studies. Furthermore, spirulina contains an impressive potassium (K) content, which is in contrast to many other food sources that have low potassium-to-sodium (Na) ratios. Additionally, it provides calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in ratios similar to those present in milk, preventing the possibility of calcium depletion is crucial, especially when there is a notable elevation in dietary phosphorus levels [28, 30].

Fig. 2

Nutritional composition of Spirulina [47].

4 Antioxidant properties of spirulina

Food supplements such as Spirulina maxima contain numerous components with antioxidant properties, including phycobiliproteins and unsaturated fatty acids like gamma-linolenic acid. These components also exhibit inhibitory effects on pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-12 [48]. Oxidative stress is a condition characterized by an imbalance between the processes of oxidation and antioxidation within the body. The imbalance arises when there is an elevated presence of reactive oxygen species, encompassing superoxide anion (O2-), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl group (-OH), and similar compounds. When cells undergo peroxidation, it leads to the creation of malondialdehyde (MDA), which in turn disrupts cell membrane permeability and results in cellular damage. Oxidative stress plays an important role in the development of metabolic disease, heart disease, inflammation, liver damage, and many other health conditions. Many chronic and age-related diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease, can be traced back to the effects of oxidative stress. Spirulina, owing to its rich content of bioactive substances like phycocyanin, carotenoids, and algal polysaccharides, has the potential to enhance the body’s ability to combat oxidative stress by boosting its antioxidant capacity [49, 50]. Currently, there is a significant body of research dedicated to exploring the antioxidant properties of spirulina. Spirulina demonstrates strong antioxidant enzyme capabilities that effectively thwart intracellular lipid peroxidation and DNA harm, all the while efficiently neutralizing harmful free radicals [51]. Due to its high antioxidant activity, spirulina is considered a promising agent for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases [52] and helps in treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and skeletal muscle damage caused by intense exercise [53]. Emerging research indicates that Spirulina, a type of single-celled blue-green algae, possesses a range of potential health advantages and therapeutic qualities. Spirulina is a rich source of essential nutrients such as chlorophyll, phycocyanin and carotenoids. It also finds application as a natural colorant in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries [54].

Spirulina is known to provide significant protection against a variety of health problems, including viral and bacterial infections, cancer, allergies, diabetes, inflammation, and elevated lipid levels. Furthermore, owing to its exceptional nutritional content, both NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) have endorsed spirulina as a fundamental dietary component for astronauts during space expeditions. In medical scenarios, spirulina has been given orally to patients due to its properties as an agent with anticancer and antiviral attributes. Nonetheless, the precise molecular mechanisms through which spirulina impacts the immune system remain not entirely comprehended. Recent research has indicated that spirulina is abundant in selenium, and when used in conjunction with anticancer medications, it notably diminishes cell growth rates and enhances apoptosis, the regulated process of cell death [55 –57].

4.1 Role of bioactive substances in Spirulina

Spirulina is a highly nutritious algae known as a natural superfood. As it grows, it produces a wide range of biologically active secondary compounds (Table 3). These compounds offer several benefits, such as antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects, immune system regulation, and even anti-tumor properties. Consequently, these compounds have substantial potential for use in medicine, healthcare products, food and various other industries.

Table 2
Number of pigments in one gram of spirulina powder [55]

Phytonutrients Percentage

Chlorophyll pigment 30 mg

B-carotene pigment 6.8 mg

Zeaxanthin pigment 9 mg

C- phycocyanin pigment 240 mg

Total carotenoids 15 mg

Total phycocyanin 519 mg

Phytonutrients	Percentage
Chlorophyll pigment	30 mg
B-carotene pigment	6.8 mg
Zeaxanthin pigment	9 mg
C- phycocyanin pigment	240 mg
Total carotenoids	15 mg
Total phycocyanin	519 mg

Table 3

Secondary metabolites and their functions of spirulina

Secondary metabolites	Functions	References
Spirulina phycocyanin	a blue protein having anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties	[58, 59]
Spirulina phycocyanin	a crimson pigment with potent antioxidant properties that aid in preventing cell damage from free radicals.	[60, 61]
Polysaccharides	Numerous polysaccharides found in spirulina, including glycans, glycoproteins, and peptides, have antiviral, antitumor, and immunomodulatory properties.	[62 –64]
Carotenoids	Spirulina contains carotenoids like beta-carotene, xanthin, and orangetin that have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that can boost the performance of the human immune system.	[65]
Spirulina protein peptide	a protein with antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-tumor properties that contains a range of amino acids.	[66]
Docosahexaenoic acid	It is a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that has a variety of health benefits, including the prevention of diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and decreasing cholesterol.	[67]
Flavonoids	They are rich in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties	[68]

5 Applications of Spirulina platensis

5.1 Dairy products

Phycocyanin, a water-soluble protein, contributes positively to yogurt by enhancing its thickness and firmness. Introducing spirulina powder into the yogurt-making process produces a yogurt that is reminiscent of curd in texture, boasts the unique fragrances of spirulina and frankincense, and displays a vivid green hue [63]. For crafting cheese, it’s advisable to first create the soft cheese base and then incorporate 1 percent spirulina powder while freezing the mixture and introducing salt. Thoroughly blend the ingredients and subsequently refrigerate the blend. The inclusion of spirulina serves to enrich the cheese with added protein and beta-carotene, reduce its moisture content, and extend its overall shelf life.

5.2 Flour products

Algae can be processed into a powder or paste and used as a valuable ingredient in food production to boost its nutritional content. Moreover, algae’s remarkable attributes include its ability to efficiently absorb water, create gels, thicken, and form films, all of which can enhance the overall quality of products made from flour. Scientific investigations have demonstrated that incorporating 0.25–1 percent spirulina powder into pasta substantially enhances the levels of amino acids and unsaturated fatty acids in the resulting product [69].

5.3 Snack food formulation

The cookie industry is increasingly emphasizing the incorporation of nutritious elements into these widely enjoyed treats. By utilizing algae like spirulina and chlorella as sources of protein, antioxidants, and bioactive compounds, cookies aim to expand their consumer appeal while enhancing their nutritional content. The inclusion of these seaweeds is recognized as a valuable enchantment to fortify wheat crackers. Two varying ratios of these supplements were examined: 2 percent and 6 percent by weight. Notably, the addition of 6 percent spirulina and chlorella led to a substantial increase in protein content, ranging from 13.2 percent to 13.5 percent. As the crackers primarily feature the spirulina algae A. platensis, recognized for its highest antioxidant activity and favorable sensory evaluation scores, these additives are acknowledged as protein sources [15].

5.4 Cosmetic industry

Spirulina provides abundant antioxidants such as carotenoids and vitamin E, crucial for combating free radicals in the body. They help protect the skin from damage caused by environmental pollutants and oxidative stress, and they also contribute to anti-aging effects. Additionally, spirulina contains natural moisturizing factors and polysaccharides that help retain skin moisture, leaving it soft and supple. Peptides found in spirulina stimulate collagen production, resulting in firmer and more elastic skin. Furthermore, the sulfides present in spirulina can alleviate skin inflammation and discomfort, demonstrating anti-inflammatory properties. Moreover, spirulina contains natural skin-whitening components such as lutein and carotenoids, which effectively inhibit the production of melanin, reducing the appearance of dark spots and dullness [70].

5.5 Biofuels

Production of biodiesel: With the ability to extract 25 grams of oil from every 100 grams of spirulina, spirulina is a significant source of oil. These oils are advantageous raw materials for the manufacturing of biodiesel because they are rich in unsaturated fatty acids that may be extracted and converted into biodiesel for energy [71]. Production of biogas: During photosynthesis, when spirulina is exposed to light, it produces a significant amount of both oxygen and hydrogen [72]. The gasses generated by spirulina during photosynthesis have the potential to be captured and put to use as clean energy sources in different devices, such as fuel cells. Furthermore, when spirulina is subjected to anaerobic conditions, it can be transformed into biogas, providing a sustainable alternative to conventional natural gas [73].

6 Conclusion

Spirulina is rich in essential nutrients and is exceptionally safe for consumption. It stands out as a protein source that is low in fat, calories and free from cholesterol, making it a valuable asset in boosting human immunity, combating viruses, preventing oxidation and contributing to the treatment of various diseases. It is evident that the consumption of spirulina algae can offer both financial benefits and health advantages. This dual advantage primarily arises from the composition of these algae and their remarkable ability to produce a diverse array of chemical compounds that hold significance in both biological and commercial contexts. Spirulina, being a natural resource, can be mass-produced economically for food processing, guaranteeing access to a nutritionally valuable natural ingredient. Its constituents encompass a plethora of biological compounds like polyunsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, phycobilins, polysaccharides, vitamins, sterols, antioxidants, and agents for reducing cholesterol, all of which are instrumental in formulating functional foods. Moreover, proteins derived from spirulina have demonstrated their effectiveness as a rich source of bioactive peptides, presenting promising prospects for the functional food sector. Despite a substantial body of literature highlighting the nutritional, environmental and social advantages of spirulina, its production remains insufficient in certain natural regions. Consequently, an increasing number of researchers and scientists globally are advocating for the expansion of spirulina cultivation.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors have no acknowledgments.

Funding

The authors report no funding.

Author contributions

Siramdas Sahil selected and wrote the manuscript. Suman Bodh reviewed and revised the manuscript. Praveen Verma revised and suggested corrections in the manuscript. All of the authors, who contributed significantly to the final manuscript, approved the submission. Every author understands the sequence of authorship and understands that once submission is made, authorship will not be changed again.

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to report.

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Spirulina platensis: A comprehensive review of its nutritional value,antioxidant activity and functional food potential

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

OBJECTIVE:

METHOD:

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

Keywords

1 Introduction

2 Spirulina as potential source of functional foods

3.1 Proteins

3.2 Carbohydrates

3.3 Fats

3.4 Vitamins

3.5 Minerals

4.1 Role of bioactive substances in Spirulina

Table 2 Number of pigments in one gram of spirulina powder [55] Phytonutrients Percentage Chlorophyll pigment 30 mg B-carotene pigment 6.8 mg Zeaxanthin pigment 9 mg C- phycocyanin pigment 240 mg Total carotenoids 15 mg Total phycocyanin 519 mg

5.1 Dairy products

5.2 Flour products

5.3 Snack food formulation

5.4 Cosmetic industry

5.5 Biofuels

6 Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

Funding

Author contributions

Conflict of interest

References

Table 2
Number of pigments in one gram of spirulina powder [55]

Phytonutrients Percentage

Chlorophyll pigment 30 mg

B-carotene pigment 6.8 mg

Zeaxanthin pigment 9 mg

C- phycocyanin pigment 240 mg

Total carotenoids 15 mg

Total phycocyanin 519 mg