Physico-chemical and mechanical characterization of Jute fabrics for civil engineering applications

Abstract

Growing environmental protection consciousness has revived the interest to develop eco-friendly composites fibers from bio-renewable resources due to their unique intrinsic properties and their wide applications. Thus, in the last two decades, extraction and use procedures of natural fibers have known an important increase for the reinforcement of composite materials called bio-composites. This paper presents a physical, chemical, morphological and mechanical characterization of Jute yarns and fabrics with a view to their integration in composite lamintes. And yet, obtained mechanical performances of Jute yarns and Fabrics allow a prediction of actual perspectives for substituting glass fibers by natural ones for semi-structural moderately loaded elements applications.

Keywords

Biomaterials Jute fabrics Jute yarns mechanical characterization XRD diffraction FTIR

1. Introduction

In recent years, a growing interest in the use of textile fibers as polymer composites reinforcement is observed for their wide applications in the primary and secondary load bearing structures [1]. Due to the global increasing environmental protection consciousness and knowledge of health hazards associated with the manufacture and use of some synthetic fibers [2]. Although the incorporation of mineral fibers can make improvements to its composites (extremely high strength to weight ratio, versatility, better resistance to corrosion, fire, acids and natural hazardous environments), there may be health problems when these fibers are used as a reinforcing agent. The studies carried out before provide evidence that exposure to glass microfibers increases the risk of respiratory and skin symptoms and has an exposure-response relation with breathlessness and skin symptoms [3]. The search for new friendly materials at affordable costs is highlighted. This aim acts like the driving force to develop, create and innovate eco-friendly materials. Thus, new terms such as renewable, sustainable and biodegradable materials have appeared in the material scientists’ vocabulary [4]. Lignocellulosic fibers already used as reinforcing materials for over 3000 years ago in composite systems since the ancient Egypt, are one of the most suitable materials to fulfill these requirements [5]. They were introduced in composites since 1908 when, for the first time, cellulose fibers were incorporated in phenolic resins [6]. Renewable, biodegradable and sustainable natural fibers could be potential substitutes for energy intensive and petrochemical-based synthetic fibers in many applications and serve as an effective way of reducing the impact textiles have on the environment. The most classically known fibers such as Jute, cotton and wool are environmentally friendly, healthy and comfortable [7]. In addition, they exhibit many advantageous properties among others; low density and low cost, high aspect ratio, recyclability, biodegradability, yielding relatively light weight composites with specific properties and very good mechanical characteristics [8]. Owing to those advantages, natural fibers are again assuming importance. Lignocellulosic fibres extracted from different parts of the plant including the bast, leaf or seed may exhibit significant differences in physical and chemical properties. Jute plant, abundantly available in eastern part of India and Bangladesh, with 2500 10 ${}^{3}$ tons produced yearly [9], it occupies the second place in terms of world production levels of cellulosic fibers after cotton. It is the cheapest lignocellulosic long vegetable bast fiber [10], and has high strength, high moisture sensitivity, low thermal and electrical insulation properties [11, 12]. Jute, once considered a lousy fiber meant for packaging purposes only, is now emerging as a versatile raw material for diverse applications. It has certain useful characteristics over other natural fibers which can be exploited for the production of value-added and innovative Jute products. Yarns are usually consisted of many different kinds of fibers, continuous or staple, parallel or twisted, tightly or loosen. Natural reinforcement could be used either as separate discontinuous randomly distributed yarns or as bidirectional fabrics. Applying fabric instead of yarn not only could enhance the fiber alignment, in order to derive the maximum benefit from such advanced anisotropic materials, but also could enhance the reinforcement handling during the composite fabrication Because the laying-up of the reinforcement into the mold is an important step of manufacturing composite components, one of the most attractive properties of fabric reinforcement is that they are easily handled and automatically processed, which can lower the production cost [13]. One other advantage of fabrics is their ability to drape over large double-curvatures surfaces and offer potential for through-thickness reinforcement and near-net shaping.

Woven fabrics are quite regular structures made of two sets of yarns, a lengthwise set called the warp and a crosswise set called the weft. These yarns are interlaced in a regular order, which is the process of combining warp and weft yarns at 90 ${}^{\circ}$ angle to make the plane construction. The integrity of the fabric is maintained by the mechanical interlocking of the fabric [14]. The warp yarns are usually the straighter, stiffer and stronger of the two families [15]. The properties of a woven fabric depend on its structure, the properties of the fibers and yarns being used, its dimensional changes during the finishing, fineness and strength [16]. Fabrics are not homogeneous nor they isotropic, i.e. Their properties are determined by the loading direction. Thus they have to be characterized for their mechanical properties in order to ensure their suitability for the application that they are aimed for.

Mechanical properties of woven fabrics can be characterized in terms of yarn properties and fabrics structures. Tensile behavior of fabrics has been a subject of a great deal of research and tensile testing has been widely used for industrial quality control as well as for product and process development [17]. For that purpose, many studies have been made on the determination of their mechanical properties [18].

Altough biaxial woven fabrics existed long before the Industrial Revolution and fabric manufacturing techniques have since adavanced enourmously, there is less reported works on natural woven fabrics utilisation and, thus, our understanding of the mechanical behaviour of the natural fabrics is still limited [19]. Thus, the widening range of natural fibers fabrics applications demands a better understanding of mechanical behavior of fabrics.

As An understanding of composite materials at the fabric level is crucial for their effective use in various applications [20], authors, carried out a physical and mechanical characterization of Jute yarns and jute yarns woven fabrics. The mechanical characterization of Jute yarns and fabrics, in addition to the Physico-chemical trials done allowed us to present raw Jute woven fabric as a good candidate for reinforcement of composite materials.

2. Materials

2.1 Jute woven fabric

A bidirectional Commercial Jute yarns fabric was investigated; Fig. 1 shows its two main directions and its wavelength values following these two directions i.e. the distance between successive crests of a yarn weave in mm. According to the specifications provided by the supplier, the weight of fabric is 460 g/m ${}^{2}$ and it was produced by 100% Jute yarns in both warp and weft direction with similar yarns.

Figure 1.

Woven Jute fabric characterized in this work.

The supplier did not give much data, therefore, further investigation is needed to characterize this fabric before its insertion in composite laminate.

3. Methods

3.1 Fabric mass per unit area

The mass per unit area of a fabric is a gravimetric characteristic defining the weight of a square meter of it. It is also called the areal density. It was analyzed in accordance to ASTM 3776–96.

3.2 Crimp level test

Crimp in a textile strand is defined as the undulations or succession of waves or curls in the strand, induced either naturally during fiber growth, mechanically or chemically. Crimp in a fiber is thus considered as the degree of deviation from linearity of a non-straight fiber crimp is the waviness of a fiber expressed as waves or crimps per unit length or as the difference between the lengths of the straightened and crimped fiber (expressed as percentage of the straightened length) [21].

3.3 Linear density

Linear density means the characteristic weight of 1 m of the yarn. It is a measure of the average number of fibers in the cross-section of a given yarn and is an important parameter having a close relation with fabric weight and affecting the thermal and mechanical properties of the fabric [22]. We followed the recommendations of ASTM D1907 to determine the value of this parameter of our Jute yarns.

3.4 Yarn count test

ASTM D3775 was followed to define the Jute fabric yarn count. The used apparatus was a Pckxi Multi-Aperture Pick Counter Model 489: The instrument is precision-made, in light-weight metals and is equipped with powerful, distortion free lens.

3.5 Fabric cover factor

Fabric cover is defined geometrically as the proportion of fabric area covered by actual yarn. In practice, cover factors are normally calculated for warp and weft independently, being given, respectively, by the proportion of fabric area covered by the yarn in that particular sheet [23].

For any fabric there are two cover factors: the warp cover factor and the weft cover factor. The fabric cover fabric is obtained by adding the weft cover factor to the warp cover factor. When widely varying cover factors are used for warp and weft, a high cover factor in one direction can generally be compensated by a low cover factor in the other direction [24].

3.6 Morphological investigation

Natural fibers are neither circular in cross-section nor uniform along their length. Consequently, a simple ‘diameter’ measurement taken from a transversely viewed fiber image may not be sufficient to accurately assess cross-section at any point [25]. The assumption of yarns having an invariable cross-sectional shape along their path in fabric is not accurate and representative for most fabric structures, since yarn flattering and distortion of yarn cross-section take place as a result of normal forces between yarn systems as they occur during the usual weaving process [26].

To overcome this problem, we used image processing technique, in addition to micrographs obtained with optical microscopy, a Nikon electronic Microscope, to determine the jute fibers cross-section.

3.7 Fourier Transform Infrared analysis (FTIR)

Fourier Transform Infrared microscopy (FTIR) has been shown to be an essential tool available to scientists to study various materials. Specifically FTIR has been increasingly used to study cell wall developments in plants, investigate the efficiency of the surface modification of polymers, identifying contaminants and predicting the physical properties of certain polymers and biopolymers [27]. Also, The FTIR is a powerful research tool for studies on the chemical structure of the samples being examined.

The ATR-FTIR measurements were obtained by means of a BRUKER 27 TENSOR having a spectral range 7500 to 370 cm ${}^{-1}$ and a resolution better than 1 cm ${}^{-1}$ .

3.8 X-ray diffraction XRD

The XRD method is a very useful and powerful analytical technique used for understanding materials crystallinity. X-ray diffraction measurements recorded in angular range 10 ${}^{\circ}$ –110 ${}^{\circ}$ (2 $\Theta$ ) at ambient temperature using a Bruker D8 Advance diffractometer system operated at the Cu K $\alpha$ 1 (wavelength of 1.5406 Ă) with steps equals to 0.02 ${}^{\circ}$ . The radiation from the anticathode operating at 40 kV and 40 mA.

We used the Eq. (1), which is the most promising to calculate the ‘Crystallinity Index’ using The X-ray diffraction spectrometer: $I_{002}-I_{am}$

$\displaystyle\textit{CrI}=\frac{(I_{002}-I_{am})}{I_{002}}$ (1)

Where CrI expresses the relative degree of crystallinity, $I_{002}$ is the maximum intensity (in arbitrary units) of the 002 lattice diffraction and $I_{am}$ is the intensity of diffraction in the same units at 2 $\Theta$ $=$ 18 ${}^{\circ}$ [28].

3.9 Tensile tests on Jute yarns and fabrics

The tensile characterization of Jute yarns and fabrics, in both warp and weft directions, was carried out on a computer controlled universal materials testing machine Testometric UTT 350, where the reference standard taken into account was the ISO 13943-2. The strains were measured and recorded by the control system of the testing machine. The Tensile tests Set-Up is shown on Fig. 2.

Figure 2.

Tensile tests on (a) yarns and (b) fabrics.

All tests on yarn and fabric having a gauge length of 200 mm are carried out at a crosshead speed of 100 mm/min. The tensile strength is thus obtained. Pneumatic grips were used to clamp the fibers and fabrics during the application of load.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Morphological investigation

In this study, it is a requirement for approximate results; therefore an image processing technique method is used for measuring cross-sectional area of Jute yarns. The samples were examined firstly by an electronic microscope. Then, we highlighted the outline of the Jute fibers and processed these micrographs through image analysis to have the most possible accurate cross-sectional values. The cross-sectional values were used in the calculation of the Young’s modulus and to convert load into stress tensile strength of each individual fiber tested.

Figure 3 reveals that jute fibers have polygonal cross-section in contrary of the hypothetical regular arrangement of individual jute fiber strands of a yarn [29]. The average cross-sectional value was 5650 $\mu$ m ${}^{2}$ in accordance with the scope found in previous researches [30]. The cross-sectional area of a fabric is obtained by multiplying the number of yarns per centimeter of fabric and average cross-sectional area of each yarn in the fabric.

Figure 3.

Micrographs of Jute yarns cross-section with highlighted outline.

4.2 Mass per unit area

To determine Jute fabric mass per unit area, 6 samples of 10 cm ${}^{2}$ were cut from the fabric then weighed on a balance with sensitivity sufficient to weigh within $\pm$ 0.1% of the mass of the specimens being tested ASTM D 3776-96. The values found in gram per 10 cm ${}^{2}$ were converted to be expressed in gram per square meter (g/m ${}^{2}$ ) GSM in textile term.

Three measurements were done on each sample and the average value obtained of the areal density was: 420 $\pm$ 0.28 g/m ${}^{2}$ . Thus it can be classified as ‘heavy fabric’. Which is quite from the yarns size because the mass per square meter of the fabric reduces as the yarn becomes finer [31].

4.3 Crimp level test

Higher yarns crimp allows a higher extensibility and higher lateral compressibility, thus high-quality fabrics [32].

The crimp tester used was a Shirley crimp tester which is a device for measuring the crimp-free length of a piece of yarn removed from a fabric. The length of the yarn is measured when it is under a standard tension whose value is given is standards used. To calculate the yarn crimp for each warpwise direction we used the following equation, ASTM D 3883-99:

$\displaystyle C=100\times(Y-F)/F\quad({\%})$ (2)

Where: $C=$ yarn crimp (%); $F=$ average of distances between bench marks on yarn in fabric, (mm); $Y=$ average of distances between bench marks on yarn after removal from fabric and straightened under tension, (mm).

The yarns crimp level was found to be: 3.63% and 0.27% for warp and weft directions respectively.

4.4 Yarn count test

Yarn count value has a direct relation with fabric cover factor [33]. Jute fabric was placed on a smooth surface. Then, warp and weft yarns were counted using the Pickxi counter in 2 cm length for each direction separately yarn count was in several regions of the fabric to confirm its homogeneity 11 in number yarns in the warp direction per 2 cm and 9 in number yarns in the weft direction leads to a fabric yarn count equal to 99 yarns per 2 cm.

4.5 Yarn linear density

When the linear density of a yarn has to be determined from a sample of fabric, a strip of the fabric is first cut to a known size. A number of threads are then removed from it and their uncrimped length is determined under a standard tension in a crimp tester. All the threads are weighed together on a sensitive balance and from their total length and total weight the linear density can be calculated.

Yarns were unraveled from the fabric and then cut to 1 m length before they were weighed using a precision scale. Fifteen yarns of 1 m length each were measured and the average weight, $M$ , in grams, was used for calculating the yarn linear density as follows:

$\displaystyle\textit{Yarn linear density}=M*k/L$ (3)

Where: $M=$ average mass of skeins, in grams; $L=$ Length of skeins as read from skein gage; $K=$ constant which equals 1000 m/g for tex.

The averaged yarn size calculated equals 428 $\pm$ 0.04 tex. which is higher than values reported before on Jute yarn size [34].

4.6 Fabric cover factor

The Calculation of fabric cover factor is presented in equation below [35]:

$\displaystyle Kc=K1+K2-K1*K2$ (4)

Fractional warp cover factor, Kwa, is given by:

$\displaystyle K1=\frac{d_{1}}{P_{1}}$ (5)

And fractional weft cover factor, Kwe, by:

$\displaystyle K2=\frac{d_{2}}{P_{2}}$ (6)

Where $d$ is the yarn diameter, suffixes 1 and 2 denoting warp and weft respectively [36].

Using the equation above we found the following values for fraction warp, fractional weft and fabric total cover factor respectively: 59.6%, 5.13% and 80.37%.

All the calculated physical properties of Jute yarns and fabric are gathered in Table 1.

Table 1

Physical properties of Jute yarns and fabrics

Fabric density	Fabric mass		Crimp level	Fabric cover
(per 2 cm)	per unit area (g/m ${}^{2}$ )	Yarn size (Tex)	(%)	factor (%)
Warp 11	420 $\pm$ 0.28	428 $\pm$ 0.04	Warp 3.63	80.37
Weft 9			Weft 0.27

4.7 DRX

X-ray crystallography was carried out to investigate the relative crystallinity of Jute fibers. The samples to be analyzed are reduced to a very fine powder and packed tightly in the sample holder.

Figure 4.

Jute x-ray diffractogram.

Their XRD pattern is shown on the Fig. 4. Two main peaks are recorded at 2 $\Theta$ $=$ 17 ${}^{\circ}$ and 2 $\Theta$ $=$ 22.5 ${}^{\circ}$ which can be attributed to cellulose I and IV i.e. to the (2 0 0) and (1 1 0) crystallographic planes [37]. The strongest one, at around 22 ${}^{\circ}$ (2 $\Theta$ ) is attributed to cellulose crystallinity [38]. The second one, at 2 $\Theta$ $=$ 17 ${}^{\circ}$ indicates an amorphous fraction of the material [39]. This XRD study corresponds well with others available in literature [40].

The crystallinity index is defined as percentage of the crystalline regions in relation to the total material [41]. This is an important parameter to consider, because it influences the chemical, physical and mechanical properties of the materials [42]. A higher CrI means there exists less amorphous regions [43]. thus, better stiffness, rigidity and strength [44].

The Crystallinity Index determined from this diffractogram using the Eq. (1) CrI was found to be approximately 41.41% for raw Jute fibers. This value is lower than that found by several investigators [45], 47% for raw Jute and of other lignocellulosic fibers; Hemp fibers $=$ 57.4% [46]. KENAF FIBERS $=$ 60% [47]. Flax fibers $=$ 86.1% [48]. Sisal fibers $=$ 62.8% [49]. Corn fibers $=$ 50% [50]. Luffa fiber 50% [51]. And higher compared to other cellulosic fibers Palm date 29% [52]. Celery 40.7% [53] and Wrightia Tinctoria 40.6% [54].

4.8 FTIR

The FTIR lets characterize the chemical structure by identifying the specific functional groups present in the sample. There are certain ‘signatures’ that can be assigned to specific components. Absorbance spectra OF Jute yarn samples were recorded over the range 4000–500 cm ${}^{-1}$ , in an environmentally controlled laboratory. It is illustrated in Fig. 5.

Figure 5.

Absorbance spectra of Jute yarns.

The absorbance peaks at 3325.2 cm ${}^{-1}$ correspond to OH free hydroxyl groups of cellulose [55]. The intensity of the C-H stretching vibration regions at 2920.8 cm ${}^{-1}$ indicates the presence of C-H groups of cellulose and hemicellulose [56, 57]. The Peak at 1733.9 cm ${}^{-1}$ is attributed to C-O stretching of the acetyl groups of hemicellulose [58]. This peak could, also, correspond to the presence of the carboxylic ester in pectin and wax [59].

The bands around 1637 cm ${}^{-1}$ and 1549 cm ${}^{-1}$ is the aromatic ring C $=$ C stretching vibrations (aromatic skeleton vibration of lignin) [60]. It can, also, be used for index of moisture contents [61]. Moreover, peaks around 1640 cm ${}^{-1}$ and 1542 cm ${}^{-1}$ could be an indication of functional groups of gluten (protein) [62]. The absorption band around 1555 cm ${}^{-1}$ is a characteristic of Ketone [63].

Figure 6.

Jute Yarns Tensile behavior (a) Warp (b) Weft.

The absorbance at 1422 cm ${}^{-1}$ is associated to the CH ${}_{2}$ symmetric bending present in cellulose and lignin [64]. The other peaks in the region 1300–1400 cm ${}^{-1}$ can be assigned to the C-O ring of lignin [65].

The peak observed at 1318 cm ${}^{-1}$ is attributed to the bending vibration of C-O groups of the aromatic ring in polysaccharides [66]. The band at 1317 cm is assigned as the in-place CH bending, may be from cellulose or hemicellulose [67].

The bands in the region 1250–1056 cm ${}^{-1}$ involve the C-O stretching vibrations of aliphatic primary and secondary alcohols in cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and extractives [68].

The vibration peak absorbance band at 1027 cm ${}^{-1}$ near to 1050 cm ${}^{-1}$ arise from the polysaccharide, lignin and cellulose components [69]. The absorption peak near 930 cm ${}^{-1}$ corresponding to asymmetric stretching vibration of Si-O-Si or cellulose –O-Si bonds [70].

This FTIR investigation evidenced the fact that the predominant components of the natural fibers are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectin [71]. In addition of some other chemical components traces like alcohols, polysaccharides and water.

4.9 Jute yarns and fabrics tensile properties

Jute fibers were carefully manually separated from the fabrics. Due to the variability of natural fibers sections, at least 15 fibers were tested for each direction and the average values are considered as representative along with the variability of the data. When mounting specimens onto the tester, special care was taken to prevent fiber misalignment.

The behavior of different fibers under tensile load is plotted in Fig. 6a and b for warp and weft direction respectively. The averaged curves show the tendency of dominantly brittle fracture for the fibers except at the lowest strain rates. The stress-strain response shows an initially compliant regime (nolinear dformation increase) up to 1.5% and up to 1% of strain for warp and weft yarns respectively, which could be explained by the decrimping and crimp interchange du to the straightening of the fibers [72]. Then, as the yarns uncrimp and straighten, the second phase shows an approximately linear proportionality stress-strain [73], till reaching their peak load when substantial brittle fracture appeared.

The weft yarns have a shorter compliant response due to lower initial crimp and a larger avrage breaking stress probably due to more moderate damage during the weaving [74], which may be a result of the presence of less imperfections in the fiber causing immediate failure comparatively with warp yarns.

At low strain rate, the applied load is borne increasingly by the amorphous region, which Is evident from the nonlinear region of the stress strain diagram. with increased applied load, The applied load is shared between crystalline and non-crystalline components and then it is fully beared by the crytalline region of the natural fiber which is also, basically, a fibre-reinforced composite on a microscale like the most biological materials unlike isotropic glass fibers [75].

The tensile moduli of Jute fibers were obtained by finding the slopes of the tensile curves in their elastic portion Fig. 7.

The two families of yarns subject to tensile testing displayed almost the same behavior and same average mechanical properties values excluding the length of first part nonlinearity tract. This would imply that the tensile properties of Jute fibers are determined by the fiber geometry, principally fineness and crimp [76].

Table 2
Mechanical properties of tested Jute yarns

Yarns	Load peak	Elongation		Stress	Tenacity	Young’s modulus
direction	(N)	at peak (mm)	strain (%)	(MPa)	(gf/tex)	(GPa)
Warp	52.95 $\pm$ 6.63	6.62 $\pm$ 0.92	3.2 $\pm$ 0.44	97.34 $\pm$ 10	17.65 $\pm$ 2.2	47.06 $\pm$ 3.35
Weft	60.67 $\pm$ 6.17	5.33 $\pm$ 0.33	2.74 $\pm$ 0.3	104.9 $\pm$ 7.27	20.53 $\pm$ 2.05	50.91 $\pm$ 6.37

Figure 7.

Linear trend line for Young’s Modulus Calculation.

Figure 8.

Central failures of Jute fabric during tensile trials (a) warp and (b) welf.

The tenacity values are calculated based on the maximum load and the Tex of the fibers. Their values are reported in Table 2 according to their direction along with the other found mechanical properties of Jute yarns. From our own tests on Jute yarns, it is seen that our tests leaded to lower tensile strength and higher Young’s modulus compared to values published before on Jute yarns [77]. This is due to the fact that; between species, and even between fibers of the same species, natural fibers differ in their composition and their microfibrillar angle and properties [78]. Our obtained results could mainly be explained by a higher proportion of cellulose [79]. In the other hand, due to their natural origin, the overall properties of vegetable fibers are strongly affected by many factors such as; plant variety and harvesting [80], moisture regain, breaking tenacity and extension [81], the appropriate management during and after harvest [82], Fiber geometry [83], fiber’s cell structure [84], yarns size and processing methods adopted for the extraction and raw material optimisation [85], maturity degree (growth stage) and fineness [86], amorphous/crystalline ratio effects [87], growing conditions [88], where they are grown (locality) and what part of the plant they are harvested (leaf or stem [89], the dimensions of individual cells [90], degree of retting [91], decortication technology [92]. These cited parameters have been shown to affect finished-product quality and manufacturing efficiency.

It is worth mentioning that some of the fibers showed evidence for little strain hardening. This phenomenon can be interpreted as a progressive reorientation of microfibrils which occur for some of the fibers [93].

Tensile tests on Jute fabrics were performed by the standard test method called ‘unravel strip test’; Rectangular strips, in warp and weft directions, were cut from the fabric having a length of 300 mm and width more than 50 mm. then, equal numbers of yarns along the length of the fabric specimen from both sides were removed until the specimen width was reduced to 50 mm to avoid yarn crossover along the edges. this step is necessary to ensure that the effects of edge defects are minimized and that the loaded yarns will not slip out of the cross yarns during the test [94].

An analysis of broken fabric samples can also provide useful information about stress distribution at breakage [95]. Figure 8a and b and show the chosen broken samples of woven fabrics the followed test method results in breaks in the central parts (disruption zone) of the specimens in both test directions except for few specimens where isolated breaks took place near the jaws as shown on Fig. 9.

Figure 9.

Jute fabric failure near the jaws.

Typical Jute yarn fabrics response under tensile loading are shown in Fig. 10. Since the tensile strength of the fabric is comprised of the tensile strength of the fibers in it [96], curve pace of stretched Jute fabrics is almost similar to that of their individual yarns subject individually to tensile stress except for their post peak-load behavior.

Figure 10.

Jute fabric tensile curves (a) warp direction (b) weft direction.

The behaviour of woven Jute fabrics in this work progressed in three phases, first compliance phases caused by the straightening of fibers and their uncrimping phenmenon with a load beared by the amorphous regions of the fibers. As a fabric is stretched, the crimp in the direction of the stretch is removed, permitting the fabric structure to reach its maximum extensibility, the greater the yarn crimp, the more extensible is the fabric. Then, the second phase, at higher strain rates (4% for warp and 2% for weft directions), the fabrics behave like a stiffer elastic body, the curves increased their slopes slowly until the sumit of the curves is reached.

At the third phase, a fall of strength is observed. In the event of failure the material does not disintegrate catastrophically, but goes through a gradual failure that has been called graceful failure [97, 98]. The load was gradually increased and the test was continued till complete failure of the specimen [99]. This progressive failure of fabrics is hypothized to be induced by the fact that, when all the fibers are fully straighten, failure is initiated at elementary fibers consisting the fabric, depending on their intrinsic strengths till all the fibers, finally, had their rupture. Consequently, fabric reached its ultimate strength. all the obtained curves exhibit a predominantly nonlinear and viscoelastic as reported elsewhere [100]. Additionally, as failure may always occur at any section of weakness along the constitute fibers of the fabric; it is difficult to predict the break point [101]. The overall performances of fabrics are a function of the chemical nature of the constituent yarns type, weaving type, contexture, straightness and thickness of the fabric samples [102].

Despite that the fabric should be stronger in the winding direction than in the transverse direction [103]. It was clearly seen that weft direction fabrics showed more important tensile strength values than those of the warp direction fabrics. The ultimate strength in both directions fluctuated slightly and it is weakly related to the way the fabric is manufactured. The main factors influencing the ultimate strength is thickness of the yarns (related to the dead weight of the fabric), the number of yarns per width unit (expressed by the Tex factor) and the material from which the yarns are made [104]. Based on this, the higher tensile strength acquired by the fabrics of the weft direction could be attributed to two main factors; firstly, to the lower yarns crimp level and, thus, lower damage occurred during fabric processing as mentioned above. Secondly, weft direction fabrics comprise few thicker yarns with higher yarns linear density which is the best predictor of the mechanical properties and is the preferred parameter to control when specifying a material for implantation in load bearing situations [105]. The same findings for tensile behavior of natural fiber fabric were obtained by [106] who presented a detailed characterization of hemp fiber fabrics.

Cassie holds that high moduli for both the tensile and the shearing elasticities of textile fibers confer to laundering of fabrics, prevent their rapid disintegration [107]. Jute fibers and fabrics exhibit variability in their mechanical characteristics which is quite characteristic of natural fibers. This variability is probably related to the variability in microsturucture of the jute fibers, their dimensions, intrinsic strength and possible damage during extraction process and distribution of defetcs within the fibers or on their surfaces [108]. On the other hand, in most practical tests, perfect homogeneity of strain in never realized [109].

Table 3

Jute fabric average mechanical properties

Fabric	Load peak	Elongation		Stress
direction	(N)	at peak (mm)	Strain (%)	(MPa)
Warp	934.05 $\pm$ 30	20.95 $\pm$ 0.38	10.37 $\pm$ 0.1	56.81 $\pm$ 5.0
Weft	1081.35 $\pm$ 77	10.37 $\pm$ 0.39	5.16 $\pm$ 0.19	89.2 $\pm$ 5.58

The average values of load and elongation at peak, Strain and tensile strength of Jute fabrics are listed in Table 3.

5. Conclusion

In this study, the physical and tensile mechanical properties of Jute yarns and Jute woven fabrics were investigated, the following conclusions were derived from the experiments conducted:

•

Jute yarns are sufficiently stiff and resistant to be introduced in thermosetting resin based composite materials.

•

Variability of Jute fibers physical and mechanical characteristics, whether the fibers are presented unprocessed on in textile threads, because of their non-uniformity and their dimensional variability and their dependence to many of factors mainly: chemical composition and process techniques.

•

FTIR and XRD show similarity with the other natural fibers and confirm the chemical composition of Jute fibers: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other chemical components as minor amounts.

•

The total cover factor of the Jute fabric is 80.37%, thus it is presumed that the resin could penetrate the whole fabric during fabrication and wet all the fabric yarns to produce a good composite material.

•

Jute woven fabric can be categorized as a ‘heavy fabric’ and this characteristic is affected by the yarns size.

•

Although the Jute fibers have a rough surface, their bonding strength with polymer matrix is weak requiring prior chemical treatments.

The suitability of Jute yarns and fabrics to be a promising alternative to their synthesized homologue because they have beneficial properties such as low density, low cost, thus, providing advantages for utilization in commercial applications; automotive industry, buildings and constructions.

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Physico-chemical and mechanical characterization of Jute fabrics for civil engineering applications

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction

2. Materials

2.1 Jute woven fabric

3.1 Fabric mass per unit area

3.2 Crimp level test

3.3 Linear density

3.4 Yarn count test

3.5 Fabric cover factor

3.6 Morphological investigation

3.7 Fourier Transform Infrared analysis (FTIR)

3.8 X-ray diffraction XRD

4.1 Morphological investigation

4.3 Crimp level test

4.5 Yarn linear density

Table 2 Mechanical properties of tested Jute yarns

References

Table 2
Mechanical properties of tested Jute yarns