Providing supportive transition services to individuals with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations for vocational rehabilitation professionals

4.1 Transition team structure and processes

Early detection and treatment of ASD has been associated with improved adult outcomes (e.g., employment, independent living, community engagement, social functioning; Adamou et al., 2013; Gjerven, Torgersen, Nordahl, & Rasmussen, 2012; Wehman et al., 2014). As such, transition services should be provided in an early intervention context. Outreach to schools to identify students with ASD who stand to benefit from transition services that incorporate early and ongoing age-appropriate career development activities is imperative. Consequently, VR professionals should make every effort to engage with school personnel to ensure early transition planning. Also, early planning and preparation for transitioning to adult services can help ease this transition, particularly for those with ASD who have difficulties with handling change. Table 1 summarizes the differences in rights and responsibilities between secondary and postsecondary (adult) service settings and can be a helpful guide for easing some of the anxiety that accompanies this transition.

To develop effective transition plans, transition team members must first consider their views regarding the educational and vocational potential of individuals with ASD. Because of the multitude of functional domains that this neurodevelopmental disability may affect, team members should be cautious not to underestimate their strengths or prematurely restrict postsecondary and vocational options as they work to identify employment goals. Team members must also keep in mind the heterogeneity of this population in terms of skills, functional limitations, compensatory strategies, interests, and preferences. Additionally, they should consider how functional deficits in settings that do not provide a good person-environment match may be assets in settings that do provide a good person-environment match. In terms of structuring and planning the transition process, Kohler, Gothberg, Fowler, and Coyle (2016) have developed a collaborative framework and service delivery model that can be used as a guide for transition team members (see Table 2).

Rehabilitation professionals and other transition team members should implement, to the maximum extent possible, carefully developed plans that can be evaluated through data-driven practices (e.g., progress monitoring) to determine if the individual with ASD demonstrates gains in various domains of functioning (Sansosti & Powell-Smith, 2006; Sansosti, Powell-Smith, & Cowan, 2010). By carefully targeting essential skills to be taught, planning specifically when and how the skills will be taught, and determining data collection methods, rehabilitation professionals and transition team members will have effective programs that engage students with ASD (Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003) and that are legally defensible (Yell, Katsiyannis, Drasgow, & Herbst, 2003).

In addition to being systematic, a transition plan for an individual with ASD should be employed in a highly structured and predictable environment. This type of environment will enable individuals with ASD to attend to important stimuli in the environment, thereby promoting learning and decreasing the amount of time engaging in nonfunctional stereotypical behavior (Barton & Harn, 2014). In fact, strategies that incorporate visual presentation are considered to be one of the most effective methods for assisting individuals with ASD (National Autism Center [NAC], 2009; Nikopoulos & Nikopoulou-Smyrni, 2008). The use of visual supports utilizes pictures, photographs, lists, or other visual material (e.g., computers; mobile technologies) that prompt the individual with ASD to engage in a particular behavior or prepare them to engage in a particular activity or task (Sansosti & Powell-Smith, 2006). Through the use of visuals, individuals with ASD require less verbal reminders and they increase their level of independence. Without visual aids, some individuals with ASD may engage in stereotypical and/or inappropriate behavior(s), while others may do nothing or spend their time focusing on details of a task, making them forget the task entirely. Visual supports should be used across settings to improve the functional capabilities of individuals with ASD. Teachers can use these in the classroom to facilitate learning; academic coaches can use these with postsecondary students with ASD to facilitate success in coursework and persistence to degree or certificate completion; and job coaches, employment support specialists, and employers can use these to ensure satisfactory job performance.

Because ASD is characterized by functional difficulties in social communication, the interactions of transition team members and students with ASD may be challenging. However, several considerations for improving communication with consumers with ASD can substantially strengthen the partnership and increase the potential for successful outcomes (Aleza Greene, Director of the University of Arkansas Autism Support Program, personal communication, December 13, 2015). For example, because individuals with ASD tend to be fairly concrete and have difficulty with the nuances of language, transition team members should try to avoid sarcasm and use of idioms (e.g., “I’d better hit the road”). Because individuals with ASD can also experience difficulties with expressive and receptive nonverbal social cues, they may not be able to interpret the nonverbal facial expressions and body language of transition team members, and at the same time, their nonverbal expressions may not match what they are thinking and feeling. Therefore, transition team members should be direct and precise, even using visual cues, as previously described, in their communications with students with ASD. They should also clearly explain and periodically review transition goals and task expectations of the student and each transition team member. When students with ASD make social mistakes, it is also important for transition team members to directly (and compassionately) point out these mistakes rather than ignoring them or responding to these mistakes with nonverbal cues. Finally, because a characteristic of ASD is a tendency to obsessively focus on one particular area of interest that often dominates their conversations with others, transition team members should directly address with the student the need to stay on topic and focus on the meeting agenda. Transition team members can then reserve the last five minutes of each meeting to talk about the student’s interest. This technique validates that these interests are important to the transition team but not at the expense of the work that needs to be accomplished during the meeting.

Transition team members should also recognize when the student is demonstrating as “self-stimulatory” or “self-stimming” behaviors. Team members must understand that if these behaviors occur during a meeting, they are not performed intentionally. Rather, they are due to difficulty in identifying and describing one’s emotions (Fitzgerald & Bellgrove, 2006) as well as the individual’s sense of loss of control or inability to predict outcomes (Koerner & Dugas, 2008; Wigham et al., 2015). That is, these behaviors likely occur in highly stressful situations that are difficult to interpret or that evoke anxiety or confusion. Thus, such behaviors may be signals that the transition team meeting is highly stress-provoking for the individual with ASD, and actions (e.g., holding meetings in a place where the student feels secure, inviting the student to bring a friend or advocate to next meeting, providing more structure in future meetings, scheduling shorter meetings) should be taken to avoid overwhelming the student and to reduce the student’s stress. Additionally, transition team members should keep in mind that transitional periods (e.g., from high school to college or work, from college to work) can be stressful times for all youths and young adults, but can be even more stressful for youths with neurodevelopmental disorders. During these times, transition team members should provide students with positive support and encouragement as well as any other services needed to facilitate a less stressful transition.

Because individuals with ASD often have co-occurring psychiatric disabilities, it is crucial that transition team members are alert to the possibility of these comorbidities and make appropriate referrals for evaluation and treatment. Additionally, team members must be aware of the ways in which co-occurring psychiatric conditions may present themselves. Characteristics of these conditions may include a worsening in behavior, inattention, social withdrawal, overreliance on obsessions and compulsions, hyperactivity, aggressive or oppositional behavior, agitation, and/or changes in eating and sleeping (Eussen et al., 2013). Finally, schools have an obligation under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act to ensure that school environmental barriers do not preclude students with disabilities from participating in their Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Because students with ASD are at an increased risk of being bullied, and bullying can interfere with both academic performance and attendance, immediate actions must be taken to cease the bullying when transition team members are made aware of the situation (Koch & Rumrill, 2017). Increasingly, schools are developing no tolerance policies for bullying, educating witnesses of bullying about how to intervene, and developing remediation plans that involve both the bully and the bully’s target.

A critical consideration in transition planning is how to actively engage individuals with ASD and their family members in all phases of the transition planning process. In separate focus groups with professionals and parents that explored these participants’ perceptions of the educational and vocational support needs of children and youths with ASD, both professionals and parents underscored that parents (or guardians) are the best experts on their children and should be treated as such by transition team members (Baker, Koch, Higgins, & Greene, 2012). The family members of children, adolescents, and young adults with ASD most often have the greatest insight into their children’s needs, styles, strengths, and interests. Parental input offers a unique and critical viewpoint that can provide insight into the student’s developmental history and interpretation of abilities, along with information about services and interventions provided to the individual in the past as well as the effectiveness of these services (Sansosti, Powell-Smith, & Cowan, 2010).

Family and parent engagement increases the frequency of learning opportunities for the student with ASD and can help to maintain and generalize skill sets learned across settings (e.g., school, home, community, work (Barton & Harn, 2014). Research also has shown that challenging behaviors may decrease and engagement with tasks may increase when parents are included in the execution of interventions (Lequia, Machalicek, & Lyons, 2013). Given these findings, transition team members should view and treat families as essential and equal partners in the planning and delivery of transition supports and services.

Transition team members should continue to offer expertise, but encourage members of the family (as well as the individual, when appropriate) to offer their expertise—knowledge of their child! A partnership is a reciprocal relationship that involves listening and sharing, not telling a family what to do. It is equally important that transition team members recognize that family members may not know how to participate in the transition team process. They may be hindered by their own experiences, or lack of experiences, collaborating with professionals, or, more likely, feel ineffective and/or alienated (especially those from cultural or linguistic backgrounds that differ from the backgrounds of the transition team members). Concerted efforts should be made to ensure that family members understand to purpose of transitional planning and that transition team members understand the particular family dynamics that may influence availability and/or involvement. Issues such as work schedules, transportation issues, family characteristics, lack of childcare, and other stressors influence the ability of families to be consistently involved (Crosland & Dunlap, 2012; Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003). Transition team members should respond to such dynamics in a non-judgmental manner and make appropriate accommodations to account for each family’s unique circumstances. Furthermore, they should be aware that, in general, parent involvement tends to decrease as children get older, but the need for parental involvement for individuals with ASD may increase as the child ages. As such, the transition team should do their best to consider methods for offering families assistance during the complex time of adolescent development/young adulthood. Once such considerations are accounted for, efforts to create a more collaborative partnership between home and community should be of primary focus. A caveat to keep in mind is that if the individual is a legal adult, he or she must first be consulted about the involvement of family members, specific members to be included in meetings, and the degree and type of family involvement desired.

Relatedly, as children with ASD become adolescents and young adults, their role in identifying transition goals, services, and desired outcomes should take precedence in the process; and their active involvement should increase. However, researchers have noted that students often take a passive role because they find it difficult to reveal private information and assert themselves to authoritative figures (e.g., transition team members; Walker & Gowen, 2011). Likewise, they may lack the self-determination skills necessary to become active participants. To address this issue, researchers at the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center for Pathways to Positive Futures developed an approach called Achieve My Plan! (AMP; Walker & Gowen, 2011). This approach applies to all educational and service provision teams involving youth with disabilities and focuses on increasing their control of the transition planning process. A key feature of AMP is the provision of AMP coaches who meet individually with students to prepare them to take ownership of the team process. AMP coaches instruct students in how to identify and assert their opinions and preferences and how to handle conflicts or disagreements that may arise. AMP coaches also meet with transition team members to advise them on how to encourage student self-determination and active involvement in transition planning. Although AMP was originally developed as an approach for working with youth with psychiatric disabilities, it certainly has application to transition planning with youth with ASD. However, research is needed to implement and evaluate this approach.

4.3 Transition services

Consideration of each student’s uniqueness must be at the forefront in planning for transition services. Also, when designing/implementing individualized supports and services for individuals with ASD, transition team members should strive to create as many opportunities for these consumers to exert greater control through choice making—the process of allowing an individual to select an activity among several alternatives (Koch & Rumrill, 2017). However, especially if they are younger with more severe functional limitations, these individuals may have had limited experiences with decision-making and may need self-determination training. In these cases, decision-making may need to involve the presentation of options. For example, an individual with ASD may be given the choice of whether to complete one of two work-required tasks before the other. The expectation remains that the individual will complete both activities, but the individual with ASD directs the order regarding which to do first. Related to the importance of choice making, rehabilitation professionals should also incorporate the individual’s preferences—those objects, tasks, and/or activities most appealing and naturally rewarding—into all aspects of the transition planning processes. When choice making and preference can be incorporated into these processes, individuals with ASD may exert more control over their lives, thereby decreasing problematic behaviors and increasing time engaged in social contexts (Powell-Smith & Vaughn, 2006).

The extant literature provides many evidence-based approaches that facilitate effective programming for individuals with ASD (e.g., Crosland & Dunlap, 2012; Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003; Lee & Carter, 2012). Specifically, it is important that transition plans and specified services include each of the following: (a) individualized instruction that incorporates choice and preference; (b) functional programming (i.e., viewing challenging behavior(s) as instructional needs and developing instructional priorities that emanate from the environment); (c) systemic instruction provided within a structured environment; and (d) collaboration with families, school personnel, and other service providers. Such programming should steadily expose individuals with ASD to cues, prompts, and interesting and motivating stimuli, as well as employ consistent feedback and repeated exposure in order to be most effective. The incorporation of these characteristics in social skill, behavioral, and even academic and employment plans not only will permit transition team members to support the needs of individuals with ASD, but also promote positive outcomes.

Research endorses the idea that interventions for individuals with ASD should include personalized elements in order to increase motivation and engagement when learning new skill sets (e.g., Koegel, Shirotova, & Koegel, 2009; Lanou, Hough, & Powell, 2012; Wehman et al., 2014). The incorporation of supports that align with the interests and strengths of the individual promotes higher levels of engagement, which may be a predictor of positive outcomes during, and in some cases, after a treatment, education, transition, or employment plan (Logan, Bakeman, & Keefe, 1997). Evidence-based practices can include individualized elements such as specific hand gestures as a response cue that the individual finds engaging (i.e., high-five), using a favorite character to teach a skill, or even incorporating a particular strength in circumscribed interests (e.g., plumbing fixtures, insects). Regardless of the approach, transition services should be custom designed in order to cater to individual needs and skill levels. To be optimally supportive, transition plans for individuals with ASD should incorporate opportunities for the development of social skills; life skills including money management, hygiene, housekeeping, maintenance of health, personal organization, and using public transportation or driving; personal behavioral skills, including sex education; pre-vocational activities including soft skills training; career exploration; job seeking skills training; volunteer or internship experiences; supported first-job experiences; plans and supports for post-high school education (college, technical education, apprenticeships); and supported employment (Geller & Greenberg, 2010).

As emphasized throughout this article, services that will increase employability, capacity to live independently in their communities, and ability to achieve other desired adult outcomes should begin early in the education of children with ASD. Wehman et al. (2014) reported that children and youths with ASD receive most of their education in special education settings, report low rates of participation in their own transition planning, and have a curriculum that includes primarily non-academic/non-vocational courses, despite the fact that they have remarkably high grade point averages in comparison to their peers with other disabilities. These inadequate school experiences leave youths with ASD unprepared to successfully transition into adult roles. To remediate this problem, Wehman et al. (2014) provided several recommendations for transition services and school experiences targeted at improving adult outcomes. Foremost among these recommendations is the need to increase inclusion of these students in general education classes rather than special education and vocational classes. Also, there is a substantial need to include training in self-determination in high school curricula to better prepare students for making important life decisions (e.g., career choices, choices about postsecondary degree options, decisions about whether or not to disclose information about their disability to prospective employers).

Wehman et al. (2014) also pointed out that many youths with ASD leave high school unprepared for adulthood with respect to employment, postsecondary education, and community living. They may lack the autonomy or independence to effectively transition into adult roles, and as a consequence may continue to rely on family members for basic needs, financial support, housing, supervision, and companionship. As such, transition services should incorporate age-appropriate career development activities. In particular, transition teams should diligently work with students with ASD to establish goals that include postsecondary education in technical and vocational training programs, community colleges, and four-year colleges and universities. These students should also be provided with opportunities to dually enroll in postsecondary classes, receiving educational coaching if necessary, while they are still receiving special education services in high school. Paid employment with intensive job coaching and support before they leave high school is also imperative. “Such experience will allow these students to demonstrate their capacities and to engage supervisors and co-workers in ways that point to their high value in competitive employment” (Wehman et al., 2014, p.7).

Positive systematic instruction should be used to increase functional literacy, self-care, life skills, independence, and self-determination (Wehman et al., 2014). Systematic instruction involves the process of carefully planning for all aspects of a given transition plan. When a transition plan is designed systematically it will: (a) identify the overall goals for a given transition plan/intervention (e.g., increase the number of social initiations); (b) detail the instructional procedures (e.g., use of a computer-assisted social skills lesson); (c) outline the implementation procedures (e.g., provide direct lessons three times per week, supplemented by computer-assisted Social Stories three times per week for a period of eight weeks); (d) identify activities to ensure skill maintenance and generalization; and (e) specify the procedures for data collection and evaluation (e.g., behavior will be rated each day; data will be reviewed each week). In essence, transition plans that are systematic are those that have clear, purposeful objectives that focus on detailed aspects of interventions implemented with students and use meaningful data to monitor outcomes.

Additional services on individualized transition plans can include peer mentoring along with structured social skills training that emphasizes real-world applications such as engagement in extracurricular activities and work experiences. Services such as mental health counseling and psychiatric interventions may be needed for individuals with co-occurring psychiatric disabilities. Finally, Wehman (2014) pointed out the need to increase access to professional speech and behavioral therapies that focus on functional adaptation in natural community settings and work environments.

4.4 Postsecondary supports and services

The authors have noted throughout this article that students with ASD should be encouraged, whenever feasible, to attend postsecondary technical and vocational schools, community colleges, and four year colleges and universities to improve their prospects in securing high-demand jobs that pay livable wages. However, to achieve academic success, these students are likely to need supports and services beyond what are typically provided in postsecondary settings. Functional limitations associated with ASD that may negatively impact academic performance include but are not limited to deficits in executive functioning (e.g., inattentiveness, difficulties with organizational skills); difficulties with time management; and challenges in the areas of communication, social interactions, and developing social relationships (Roux, Shattuck, Rast, Rava, Edwards, Wei, McCracken, & Yu, 2015).

Another important consideration is how the transition team can proactively assist the student in obtaining postsecondary classroom accommodations. Prior to transitioning to postsecondary educational settings, transition team members can educate students about their rights and responsibilities in the areas of disability disclosure to receive classroom accommodations, appropriate documentation required to be eligible for classroom accommodations, and how to apply for and request accommodations from campus-based disability service providers (Peterson, Van Dycke, Roberson, & Sedaghat, 2013; Merchant & Dintino, 2011; Merchant & Gajar, 1997). Classroom accommodations may include extended time on tests, reduced course load, note-takers, readers, recording devices, screen-readers, voice recognition, and other adaptive software or hardware for computers (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2011). Although not required by law, there are other supports and services that can be helpful including tutoring, coaching in time management skills, assistance with exam preparation, and instruction in strategies for reading college level textbooks.

Growing numbers of colleges and universities across the U.S. have established programs for students with ASD that are specifically designed to provide services above and beyond what most campus-based disability service providers are required to offer (Aleza Greene, Director of the University of Arkansas Autism Support Program, personal communication, December 13, 2015; Autism Speaks, Inc., 2016). These programs range from summer transition programs for incoming college students with ASD to services and supports provided throughout students’ academic enrollment. Although each program is unique, they often share similarities in terms of how they are structured and services that are provided. These programs emphasize individualized planning for university-based supports and services that is based on each student’s unique needs and preferences. Academic coaches are employed by programs to assist these students to enhance their skills in the area of executive functioning (e.g., organization, time management, study skills, stress management). Academic coaches may also help facilitate the process of accessing classroom accommodations. Relatedly, they can help to facilitate meetings with professors about how to implement accommodations in the classroom and how to best support students to successfully complete specific courses and course assignments without giving them an unfair advantage over their peers. Academic coaches may also facilitate meetings with other service providers (e.g., career counselors, campus-based mental health counselors, writing center tutors, student affairs personnel) to address additional academic support and service needs of the student. Peer mentors (typically undergraduate students who receive training from program staff) provide coaching to facilitate social integration into the postsecondary setting. Peer mentors work with students to develop social skills and friendships and encourage students to join campus-based clubs, go to sporting events, and engage in other social activities sponsored by the college or university they are attending.

These programs may also provide career development services such as arranging on-campus and community internships for students to gain work experience; learn appropriate work skills (especially soft skills that are transferable across occupations); learn the “unspoken rules” of workplace cultures; and receive corrective feedback from a job coach, employment support specialist, or academic coach. Oftentimes, these programs offer psychoeducational groups that focus on the development of specific skills (e.g., social skills, study skills, time management, stress management). They may also offer peer support groups and work with residence hall directors and related personnel to create inclusive living-learning environments in residence halls.

Students in these programs typically meet with peer and academic advisors on a weekly basis or more frequently during stressful times such as initial enrollment and midterm and final exam periods. A downside of these programs is that they typically cost a fee (between $2,000 and $6,000 a semester) in addition to tuition. However, some programs do offer scholarships. Furthermore, research is needed to examine outcomes of these programs (e.g., first- to- second- year persistence, persistence to degree completion, employment, student satisfaction with programs).

4.5 Employment supports and services

One of the first considerations regarding employment is how age-appropriate career development activities can be incorporated into the IEPs of children with ASD long before a formalized transition plan is implemented. For children, these activities include participation in chores at home and in school; social skills training and opportunities to practice these skills in real world contexts; participation in school clubs and athletics; and adult and peer mentors. These activities will enable children and youths to explore their interests, develop pre-vocational skills, and, perhaps most importantly, begin to envision themselves as future employees. VR professionals working for agencies and programs that provide services to children and youths with disabilities can be instrumental members of IEP teams and ensure that career development experiences are incorporated into the IEP plans of children and youths of all ages.

Another important consideration in terms of employment preparation is how characteristics of ASD that may be deficits in some employment settings may actually be assets in others. In fact, in recognition of the unique assets that these individuals bring to the workplace, a growing number of companies are creating initiatives to hire and retain workers with ASD (Che, 2016). Among these companies are Microsoft; SAP, a German software company; CAI, an information technology company; Oliver Wyman, a consulting firm, and Wills Towers Watson, a risk management and human resources firm. Noted ASD characteristics that are valued by employers include “the ability to find patterns and anomalies in data and to focus and perform high-quality repetitive work” (Che, 2016, para.9). These attributes are valuable assets in occupations such as data analysis, informational technology, software design, and multimedia. In team projects, employees with ASD are noted by these employers to foster creativity and innovation. A word of caution—VR professionals and transition team members must avoid occupational stereotyping and only targeting employment in these arenas because of the heterogeneity of individuals with ASD; however, employers are increasingly considering how ASD characteristics lend themselves to occupational success in a variety of positions (e.g., graphic design, finance, administration, marketing, retail) in addition to those listed above (Che, 2016).

Moving along to the actual job search, transition team members must keep in mind that, although conducting a job search is stressful for all individuals, it is likely to be even more stressful for individuals with ASD (Koch & Rumrill, 2017). Therefore, extensive support may be needed during this process that includes encouragement and positive reinforcement as well as assistance in conducting the job search, completing job applications, and interviewing for jobs. Job development and placement specialists can use role-plays with these consumers to practice interviewing for jobs and provide them with specific corrective feedback. In some cases, the prospective employee may want a job placement professional to attend job interviews to assist in effectively communicating his or her qualifications to employers.

Training in soft skills is a critical service to provide to individuals with ASD (Autism Speaks, Inc., 2012) and should occur across all phases of the job development, placement, and retention process. Individuals with ASD will need these skills to successfully complete job interviews, receive job offers, and work effectively with co-workers and supervisors. Indeed, researchers have discovered that as much as 85% of employment success is due to soft skills as opposed to hard skills, and people are more likely to be fired from their positions because of deficits in soft skills as opposed to deficits in hard skills (Robles, 2012). Job coaches or employment support specialists can be instrumental in helping these employees to develop soft skills (e.g., small talk, respect for co-workers’ personal space, understanding idioms and slang, emotional reciprocity, deciphering unspoken cultural norms so that they do not unintentionally violate them).

Once a job is secured, supported employment is arguably the single most influential practice that results in sustained job retention for youth with ASD (Schall et al., 2012). Specifically, supported employment assists people with significant disabilities through customized, intensive, and ongoing support (Chen et al., 2015). The focus of employment supports will most likely be on the development of soft skills as opposed to hard skills. Particularly during the initial stages of employment, services targeted at soft skills development are likely to be intensive, and, as the employee becomes more effective at implementing these skills, the job coach or employment specialist gradually fades out services until the employee is able to independently use these skills or rely on a co-worker (natural support) to assist them with these skills. During stressful periods such as changing jobs or career advancement, job supports may be resumed to facilitate the individual’s career success.

Business partnerships are a collaborative effort to increase the employment of individuals with disabilities. This form of supported employment is utilized to assist workers in specialized business (e.g., Walgreens, Bank of America, Marriot Bridges, etc.) until the employee is independent (Schall et al., 2012). Customized employment is another model of supported employment that allows a person with ASD to negotiate a personalized job independently or through a job negotiator. The job negotiator meets with the employer and arranges a job for the individual. In an example provided by Schall and colleagues (2012), the job negotiator met with the owner of a sandwich shop and arranged for the individual to prepare vegetables for sandwiches, stock the drink cooler, and deliver orders within a 4-block radius of the store. These tasks served the needs of the business and the employment needs of the individual with ASD (Schall et al., 2012). Although a large body of research provides evidence of the effectiveness of supported employment interventions for individuals with other severe disabilities, less research has examined the outcomes of supported employment for individuals with ASD.

Accommodation planning is another key employment service that will facilitate employee success. In an investigation of workplace discrimination and ASD, Van Wieren, Reid, and McMahon (2008) found that an extremely low number of ASD discrimination complaints were received by the EEOC and speculated that this could indicate a particular need to educate individuals with ASD about their rights and options to file discrimination complaints. These authors also suggested that individuals with ASD might not recognize discrimination when it occurs or know what actions to take if they do recognize it. Thus, educating these individuals about their rights and responsibilities under the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA) is often the first step in accommodation planning.

Identifying functional limitations, essential job functions, and potential accommodations is the next step in the process. VR professionals can initiate this step with consumers by exploring functional difficulties and corresponding accommodations they have used in secondary and postsecondary classrooms or previous employment to determine if any of these can be applied to new positions. These accommodations can then be supplemented by additional accommodations collaboratively identified by the individual with ASD and the VR professional (i.e. job development and placement specialist or VR counselor). Whetzel (2013) offered numerous accommodation ideas for workers with ASD that can be retrieved from the Job Accommodation Network (JAN) website. To address communication difficulties, the author recommended ideas such as providing advance notice of topics to be addressed at meetings or allowing employees to provide written, instead of oral, responses at meetings. Examples of accommodations for atypical body movements include allowing employees to use items such as squeeze balls for self- stimulation and providing structured breaks for physical activity. To accommodate sensory issues, accommodation ideas include changing the lighting for individuals with fluorescent light sensitivity, moving individuals with noise sensitivity to quieter offices or workstations, and (to accommodate fragrance sensitivities) institute fragrance-free office policies or allow telework. To accommodate stress management difficulties, ideas include providing praise and positive reinforcement and the use of a support animal.

Because of the communication difficulties associated with ASD, requesting accommodations may be a particularly daunting prospect for individuals with this condition. Pre-interview practice with scripts and role-plays can be useful in these cases. One of the most effective approaches is for placement or employment support specialists to partner directly with the employee and employer to identify, implement, and evaluate reasonable accommodations. Another service that VR professionals can provide to facilitate career success is to educate employers and co-workers about the advantages of hiring and accommodating workers with ASD, unique characteristics of ASD that may be assets in particular work environments, and strategies for effectively communicating with workers with ASD. They can also assist employers to develop and implement inclusive workplace policies that prohibit and sanction any form of interpersonal mistreatment.