Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Women of parenting age from typically marginalized socioeconomic, ethnic, and racial groups are underrepresented in rehabilitation research. The literature indicates that women with disabilities and low socioeconomic status have poor outcomes related to employment and independent living.
METHODS:
The current study was a secondary data analysis of 8,350 women receiving TANF who completed vocational rehabilitation services from the RSA 911 dataset from fiscal years 2015 and 2016. To meet study aims, descriptive statistics were used to calculate frequencies, means, and percentages for each study variable. A multivariate logistic regression analysis identified demographic variables and vocational rehabilitation services as predictors of employment.
RESULTS:
Study findings indicated that on the job training, job search assistance/job placement assistance, short term job supports, and maintenance services were significant predictors of employment among the sample. Demographic predictors of employment are also reported.
CONCLUSION:
Findings indicate having a high school education or GED predicts positive employment outcomes for women receiving TANF. Provision of services related to the area of maintenance services, including support for food, clothing, and shelter are important features to address in vocational rehabilitation when supporting successful vocational outcomes for women with children and low socioeconomic status.
Introduction
Individuals of employment age (18– 64 years) with a disability experience greater incidence of living with chronic health conditions compared to individuals without a disability (Krahn, Walker, & Correa-De-Araujo, 2015). Those with disabilities and chronic health conditions have poorer employment outcomes than individuals without such challenges (Allaire et al., 2003; Beatty, 2012; Munir et al., 2007). Further, compared to men, women with disabilities have higher incidence of diagnoses that are commonly associated with disability and chronic health conditions such as stroke, muscular dystrophy, and cancer (Wisdom et al., 2010). The ability to obtain and maintain viable employment for women is further impacted by low socioeconomic status and non-white racial/ethnic minority status (Bloom et al., 2011; O’Day & Foley, 2008). Additionally, many women in the 18– 64 year old age group hold the role of mother or caregiver, potentially adding to the difficulty of securing and maintaining employment (Harris & Bettger, 2018; Lindstrom et al., 2004).
As of September 2018, 1.2 million families in the United States received federally funded assistance via The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant. The block grant funds benefits and services for low-income families with children and provides services such as basic child care as well as assistance in work-related activities such as education and training (Falk & Landers, 2019). Although the demographics of the typical TANF recipient has changed somewhat, recipients have largely been families headed by a single parent with one or two children. Women have historically been the parent of these single parent families (Falk & Landers, 2019). In 2010, 61.9% of families receiving TANF were African American or Hispanic (Office of Family Assistance, 2012). Individuals receiving TANF have been noted as having increased barriers to employment (Bloom et al., 2011). Factors related to decreased employment outcomes include lack of education, decreased employment experience, mental and or physical disability, and the care for a child with special needs (Bloom et al., 2011; Taylor & Barusch, 2004). Although it is unclear as to how each barrier individually contributes to poor employment outcomes, data suggests as barriers increase, positive employment outcomes decrease.
Few studies have explored the variables related to poor employment outcomes for women with disabilities from low socioeconomic backgrounds who are also in the care of children under 18 years of age (Hildebrandt, 2016; O’Day & Foley, 2008; Vaughn & Boston, 2010). Vaughn & Boston (2010) explored barriers related to positive employment outcomes for women of color receiving TANF with psychiatric disorders. Their findings indicated that the receipt of TANF, in and of itself, was associated with negative employment outcomes. They also found, of those women receiving TANF, receiving services related to job placement, on the job support, miscellaneous training, and “other” vocational rehabilitation (VR) supports were noted to have significantly improved employment outcomes. In a qualitative study, Hildebrandt (2016) found that women receiving TANF frequently had chronic health conditions precluding them from obtaining or maintaining employment. They had poor health literacy and relied on multiple means of public and social support to maintain themselves financially. It is clear from these study findings that women of color and low socioeconomic status may need specialized attention and linkage to supportive services that assist them in obtaining employment outcomes due to the multiple barriers they face.
The literature suggests that minority women and women of low socioeconomic status need specific interventions to improve their ability to successfully obtain and maintain employment. The purpose of the current study is to explore specific variables as predictors of employment outcomes among women of lower socioeconomic status, with a special focus on women with children that have completed VR services in an effort to better understand the services most impactful in assisting these individuals in obtaining and maintaining employment. The following research question guided this study: What factors predict positive employment outcomes for underrepresented women with children that have completed VR services?
Method
Study design
Data for the current study was derived from the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) 911 dataset from fiscal years 2015 and 2016 (RSA, 2014). The RSA-911 dataset comprises administrative data collected and submitted annually by each state VR agency on service recipients with closed case status in a fiscal year. This administrative dataset includes information regarding participant demographics, type of disability, service interventions, reason for case closure, sources of financial support, and employment outcomes achieved at the time of service record closure. To become eligible for VR services, the individual must have a physical, mental, emotional, or learning disability that is a barrier to gaining employment and be able to benefit from VR services in order to obtain employment. The study described herein is a secondary analysis of demographic variables, VR services, and closure data from the RSA 911 database. This study received approval from the Institutional Review Board at Mercy College.
Participants
Participants in the current study were first identified as female, White, Black, or Hispanic, between the ages of 18 to 64, completed VR services, and reported receipt of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). TANF recipients must meet predetermined characteristics, including level of socioeconomic need, thereby indicating a low-income level. Participants from this group were then identified as having completed VR services with or without an employment outcome.
The final sample size consisted of 8,350 White, Black, or Hispanic females with a disability that received TANF benefits at application and completed VR services. To be included in the sample, participants must have been identified as employed or unemployed at closure. Table 1 shows a complete summary of participant characteristics including demographics, primary source of impairment, type of VR services, and employment outcome.
Demographic characteristics of participants (N = 8,350)
Demographic characteristics of participants (N = 8,350)
Demographics
Associations of participant characteristics in women that received TANF and completed VR services (N = 8,350)
Associations of participant characteristics in women that received TANF and completed VR services (N = 8,350)
Study demographics included age at application, TANF amount at application, race/ethnicity, educational background, and primary cause of impairment.
Participants in VR are assessed to determine an individual’s eligibility for VR services and to outline the scope of VR services in their Individualized Plan of Employment (IPE). Services included in the current study analyses were: college training, occupational or vocational training, on the job training, job readiness training, job search or job placement, short term job supports, benefits counseling, technical assistance counseling, VR counseling, diagnosis and treatment, maintenance, and transportation. VR services included in the current study were modeled following previous research in the field as well as prescribed categories of service outlined in the RSA 911 database (Austin & Lee, 2014; Vaughn & Boston, 2010). For a thorough description of VR services provided to participants, please see Austin & Lee, 2014. Participants were identified as not having received each of the VR services included in the study design (0) versus those that received those services (1).
Employment
The closure type variable was utilized as a marker of employment in the current study. Using this variable, participants were identified as (0) having completed VR services and exiting without employment, versus (1) having completed VR services and exiting with employment. Only those that were eligible for enrollment in VR services and completed the service program were included in the current study.
Data analysis
To meet study aims, descriptive statistics were used to calculate frequencies, means, and percentages for each study variable. Independent samples t-tests and Chi-square analyses were used to investigate the relationships between demographic variables, primary source of impairment, VR services, and employment. Variables that were statistically significantly at the p < .001 level in the t-test and Chi-square analyses were included in the multivariate logistic regression. One multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted on the study sample using the significant relationships found in Table 2. Descriptive data analysis and regression analysis used PASW Statistics 26 (SPSS, 2019).
Results
Summary statistics
Study participants self-identified as White (50.3%), Black (37.0%), or Hispanic (12.8%), and had a mean age of 35.81 years (SD = 10.76) at application of VR services. The average amount of TANF at application was $348.47/month (SD = 223.07). Mental impairment as the primary cause of impairment had the highest percentage at 71.8%. The majority of participants (72.7%), had completed high school or earned a GED, with 48.3% of participants having obtained employment at the completion of VR services. A complete summary of demographic characteristics of study participants is described in Table 1.
Chi-square analysis
Chi-square tests for independence (with Yates Continuity Correction) indicated significant associations between demographic variables and employment at closure of VR services. Having graduated high school or earning a GED (χ2 = 12.09, p = .001) was significantly associated with employment at closure. Those with a sensory impairment were also significantly associated with employment at closure (χ2 = 20.01, p = .000). Being of White ethnicity (χ2 = 12.73, p = .000) was associated with not being employed at closure. Several VR services were also significantly associated with employment at closure: on the job training (χ2 = 26.80, p = .000), job search or job placement (χ2 = 161.13 p = .000), short term job supports (χ2 = 245.23, p = .000), VR counseling (χ2 = 16.81, p = .000), maintenance (χ2 = 276.03, p = .000), and transportation (χ2 = 40.34, p = .000).
Predictors of employment
Predictors of employment for study participants that completed vocational rehabilitation services
Predictors of employment for study participants that completed vocational rehabilitation services
Note. CI = confidence interval for odd ratios (OR); X2 (9,8350) = 648.52, p = .000.
Direct logistic regression was utilized to assess the impact of a number of demographic and VR services variables on the likelihood that study participants would be employed at the completion of VR services. The model contained nine independent variables (HS education/GED, White ethnicity, sensory impairment, on the job training, job search or job placement, short term job supports, VR counseling, maintenance, and transportation). The full model containing all predictors was statistically significant, χ2 (8, N = 8,350)=648.52, p = .000, indicating that the model was able to distinguish between those that were not employed versus those that were employed after completing VR services at closure. The model as a whole explained between 8% (Cox and Snell R square) and 10% (Nagelkerke R squared) of the variance in employment at closure, and correctly classified 61.8% of cases.
As shown in Table 3, participants with a high school education or GED were 1.32 times (95% CI: = 1.20, 1.47) more likely to be employed at closure of VR services, while White women in the study sample were 1.23 times less likely to be employed at closure compared to Black and Hispanic women (95% CI: = .75,.90). VR services that were significant predictors of employment at the completion of VR services were: on the job training (OR = 1.46, 95% CI: 1.16, 1.83), job search or job placement assistance (OR = 1.49, 95% CI: 1.35, 1.64), short term job supports (OR = 2.31, 95% CI: 2.02, 2.64), and maintenance (OR = 2.04, 95% CI: 1.85, 2.26).
As previous studies have examined predictors of employment for women that receive TANF with psychiatric disabilities (Vaughn & Boston, 2010), and individuals with intellectual disabilities (Austin & Lee, 2014), the current study describes a unique subset of women in VR that received TANF and completed VR services either with or without an employment outcome. Overall, those with a high school education or GED were more likely to be employed at the completion of VR services. These findings are supported in previous work exploring employment outcomes among marginalized individuals with disabilities (Dutta et al., 2008; Martin, 2010; Oberoi et al., 2015; O’Neill et al., 2017). It is clear that having at least a high school education is beneficial to obtaining employment at the completion of VR services. For those consumers that enter VR services without a high school diploma, the pursuit of a GED should be a first step in ensuring employment at closure of VR services.
The finding that White women, compared to Black and Hispanic women in the study sample, were less likely to be employed at the closure of VR services is unique to this body of literature and contrary to work by Oberoi et al. (2015) who found that employment among African American women with disabilities between the ages of 18 and 35 were less likely compared to White women with disabilities in the same age group. There are several possible explanations for these disparate findings. First, the current study included participants from a national dataset over two more current years (2015-2016), whereas the referenced study used older data (2004-2012) from virtual case-management (VCM) in a Midwestern state VR agency. Second, Oberio et al. (2015) included cases that were closed at any stage of the VR process. In contrast, findings from the current study are descriptive of cases of women between the ages of 18 to 64 that completed VR services and were coded as employed or unemployed at closure. Lastly, the referenced study compared White women to Black women with disabilities and included those that received SSI/SSDI. Current study analysis included only those White, Black or Hispanic women that received TANF (a proxy for caring for children). This finding suggests that women of color may have greater employment outcomes at closure compared to White women and indicates potential positive outcomes of completing VR services in securing employment for women of color that receive TANF. Unfortunately, this assessment could not be tested directly in the current study as being of Black or Hispanic race/ethnicity was not associated with employment at closure in the Chi-square analysis. This may have been due to the smaller sample size of women in these groups, and as such, future studies should test the independent variable of race/ethnicity with a larger sample size.
In the current study, participants with a sensory impairment were approximately two times more likely to be employed at closure of VR services compared to those with mental or physical impairments. These findings are consistent with previous studies which revealed that individuals with sensory impairments had the best employment success rate at closure of VR services when compared to individuals with other impairments (Dutta et al., 2008; Rosenthal et al., 2005). VR support services such as on the job training, short term job supports, and job placement/job assistance may be best suited to match the needs of those with sensory impairment. Since the majority of participants in the current study indicated a mental impairment as their primary source of impairment, future exploration should examine and/or develop more targeted services that best meet the needs of these consumers.
VR services that contributed to employment for women in this study were on the job training, job search or job placement assistance, short term job supports, and maintenance. These findings are similar to those found in the work by Vaugh & Boston (2010) and Oberoi et al. (2015). A contribution in the current study was the finding that maintenance services were the greatest contributor to employment outcomes, where receiving these services resulted in a greater than two-fold increase in employment. Maintenance services include support for food, clothing, and shelter related to participation in VR services and are job-related. For women with children, securing such basic needs would be an integral part of creating a solid foundation for them to pursue successful employment outcomes. This finding, as demonstrated by others (Oberoi et al., 2015), supports the importance of continuing to provide this service to underrepresented women with children as they complete VR services and gain employment.
The current study adds to the literature on VR in several important ways. First, study findings presented here underscore the importance for women in completing high school or obtaining a GED in future employment in the general population (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018), as well as among those receiving VR services (Vaughn & Boston, 2010). Secondly, to our knowledge, this study is the first of its kind to indicate that White women had a lower likelihood of employment compared to Black and Hispanic women at the completion of VR services. As others have focused on the predictors of employment among women of color, the current study contributes by considering women of low socio-economic status with children (i.e., TANF recipient) as an underrepresented group. Lastly, contrary to findings by Austin & Lee (2014), the current study indicates that maintenance - a described personal variable - contributes positively to employment among the current study participants in addition to job-related variables such as job search or placement assistance and on the job supports.
Although the current study adds several interesting components to the body of work on VR, there are limitations that will be noted here. The cross-sectional design of the current study limits interpretation to one point in time. Causality or temporal order of variables should be reserved for longitudinal designs. The findings described are specific to those that complete VR services with or without an employment outcome and are not generalizable to the greater population of individuals that receive VR services; primarily men and those that do not receive TANF. Future studies should attempt to further investigate differences in predictors of employment and employment outcomes among those engaged in VR by race/ethnicity and primary cause of impairment to further explore predictors among this unique group of underrepresented women.
The current study’s findings provide new information to support the effectiveness of VR services for women of parenting age from typically marginalized socioeconomic, ethnic, and racial groups. The findings provide valuable evidence for VR counselors to support this unique group of individuals to better prepare for, secure, and maintain employment. The provision of services related to the area of maintenance services (i.e., food, clothing, and shelter) is geared to help individuals overcome a multitude of challenges and as the findings reveal, are particularly helpful for this population of women. In today’s world, where women of parenting age are often not only required to, but desire to work, it is important to continue to identify essential support services in VR to obtain desirable vocational outcomes for low income women and women of color with children after impairment and chronic disability.
Conflict of interest
The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the article.
Funding
Financial support for this research was provided by the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR grant number 90RTST0001) to the Langston University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (LU-RRTC) on Research and Capacity Building for Minority Entities through a collaborative subcontract with the University of Massachusetts Boston Institute for Community Inclusion (TCI). NIDILRR is a Center within the Administration for Community Living (ACL), Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The contents of this article do not necessarily represent the policy of NIDILRR, ACL, HHS, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government.