Pre-employment transition services for students with disabilities: A scoping review

4.1.1 Career goal development

Career goal development involves setting clearly defined, measurable goals that depict a vision for one’s ideal work life. Five studies indicated that the development of career goals can help students with disabilities find employment after high school (Brewer et al., 2011; Fabian, 2007; Luecking & Lu-ecking, 2015; Jamieson et al., 1998; Rothman & Maldonado, 2008). Each of the five studies examined a program intervention that included goal development for students with disabilities as a component. One of the studies, which used a multivariate analysis, found that 68 percent of students with disabilities participating in the intervention secured jobs after finishing the career counseling and career assessment components of the program (Fabian, 2007). Though this specific study found no significant relationship between career goals and work outcomes, it did note that a substantial body of literature exists supporting the importance of concrete career goals and workplace efficiency (Fabian, 2007). Based on this study’s outcomes, Fabian (2007) recommended that VR counselors begin early in students’ educations to develop vocational goals.

Thresholds is an intervention that aimed to help students with disabilities make career decisions. In their evaluation of Thresholds, Jamieson et al. (1998) found that the program increased the vocational decision-making abilities of participants. A major component of the program included developing action plans to achieve career goals (Jamieson et al., 1998).

The Maryland Seamless Transition Collaborative (MSTC), an intervention designed to address key barriers to employment faced by students with disabilities, showed that a plurality of participating students had achieved key outcomes from the model’s framework at the point of transition (Luecking & Luecking, 2015). The MSTC model includes a component in which students work to together with pro-fessionals, family members, and friends to identify their employment interests and goals, which are subsequently documented in a personal profile (Luecking & Luecking, 2015).

The Model Transition Program from New York, which seeks to increase employment among students with disabilities at the point of transition, revealed a positive relationship between measurable postschool goals and postschool outcomes for students with disabilities (Brewer et al., 2011). Noticing a communication gap between high school counselors and VR counselors after evaluating a pre-college transition program in upstate New York, this study recommended a stronger collaboration between VR and high school counselors with a focus on developing students’ long-term career goals (Rothman & Maldonado, 2008).

4.1.2 Family outreach

Family members play an essential role in the lives of students with disabilities and often want to be included in discussions involving employment. Learning from the unique perspective of family members may help VR professionals facilitate the job exploration process. Five studies emphasized the importance of family outreach regarding students with disabilities and the career exploration process (Crudden, 2012; Greene, 2014; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Stone et al., 2015; Tilson & Simonsen, 2013). Three of the studies used a qualitative design, one used mixed methods, and one was a literature review. Researchers for two of the qualitative studies conducted interviews (Stone et al., 2015; Tilson & Simonsen, 2013). Stone et al. (2015) held interviews with 57 non-Hispanic and Hispanic students with disabilities and found that families are often underequipped to handle all the needs of their child, suggesting that family members should “work in conjunction with vocational staff members to facilitate the job process” (p. 462). Tilson and Simonsen held interviews with employment specialists and found that effective family communication strategies are an important component of their practice (2013). Similarly, in the third qualitative study (Crudden, 2012), researchers led focus groups with VR agency personnel to examine beliefs about effective service delivery practices. Focus group participants identified parental involvement as a positive factor in the transition and career planning process (Crudden, 2012). Another component of the MSTC intervention, as described in Luecking and Luecking’s mixed methods study in the section above (2015), involves early VR case initiation in which VR counselors work with the student and family to develop the Individualized Plan of Employment. The literature review (Greene, 2014) included in this theme explored transition outcomes for culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities and found that high numbers of these students will continue to be part of VR personnel caseloads for the foreseeable future. Because of this observed trend, Greene (2014) argued that transition personnel should work with the “broader cultural community of the family” (p. 243) when developing a comprehensive transition program for culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities.

4.1.3 Cultural competence

Students with disabilities come from an array of diverse backgrounds with different cultural needs. The cultural needs of students with disabilities may influence their career goals. Because of this, it is important for VR counselors to understand the cultural context of the students they serve when facilitating the job exploration process. Four studies cited cultural competence as an important attribute for VR counselors (Awsumb, Balcazar & Maldonado, 2016; Greene, 2014; Stone et al., 2015; Tilson & Simonsen, 2013). Three of the studies used a qualitative design, and one used a quantitative design. Of these three qualitative studies, researchers in one study conducted interviews with employment specialists and found that cultural competence was an important attribute in their line of work: “The employment specialists in our study seemed committed to learning about the youth as individuals and understanding the cultural context in which the youth lived. They demonstrated cultural competence by considering the interconnectedness of environmental and situational factors that would influence the job placement and retention process” (Tilson & Simonsen, 2013, p.131). The two other qualitative studies we identified (Greene, 2014; Stone et al., 2015) cited cultural competence as an important factor when communicating with families of culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities. The one quantitative study included in this theme (Awsumb et al., 2016) used an observational analysis to examine the outcomes of students with disabilities participating in a transition program. This study stated that poverty and oppression, especially for minority students, creates barriers to emp-loyment opportunities and that “without the help of dedicated, knowledgeable, and effective counselors (either from VR or their high schools), these students will not be able to succeed” (p. 63).

4.1.4 Interagency collaboration

Interagency collaboration focuses on getting stakeholders to solve problems together across multiple systems. Working together with stakeholders to direct career activities may help VR counselors facilitate the career exploration process. Eleven studies cited interagency collaboration between VR counselors and other stakeholders as a key factor in helping students with disabilities obtain employment (Awsumb et al., 2016; Dong et al., 2016; Fabian, 2007; Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2012; Izzo, 1999; Luecking & Luecking, 2015; Plotner et al., 2013; Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2015; Rothman et al., 2008; Tilson & Simonsen, 2013). The design of these studies ranged from quantitative (7), to qualitative (2), to mixed (2). One of the quantitative studies (Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2012) used a multiple logistic regression model to examine competitive employment outcomes for students with disabilities. It found that interagency agreements between VR agencies and local education agencies can be used as a framework to get students with disabilities involved early in transition planning (Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2012). Another quantitative study (Fabian, 2007) used a multivariate analysis to determine factors affecting transition employment in urban students with disabilities. One implication from the study’s findings is that VR counselors seeking to assist in the formulation of career-related activities and interventions work with special education and related personnel as early as possible. Similar findings were outlined in the other five quantitative studies included in this theme. For instance, Plotner et al. (2013) argue that stronger partnerships between schools and VR systems can positively impact counselor perceptions of transition activities. Dong, Fabian, and Luecking (2015) state that local school agencies and VR agencies working collaboratively can help address the employment gap students with disabilities face as they exit high school. Izzo (1999) maintains that for students with disabilities to experience smooth transitions into adult life, VR services must be coordinated with other educational services. Awsumb et al. (2016) concur that a working relationship between VR professionals, students with disabilities, the family, and the school is essential for a successful transition to adulthood. Plotner and colleagues (2012) similarly consider knowledge sharing and frequent communication as essential for VR professionals to perform the full scope of their duties.

As reported in the two qualitative studies, one team of researchers interviewed seventeen employment specialists and identified four personal attributes that support effective practices (Tilson & Simonsen, 2013). One of these attributes identified was ‘networking savvy’, which is the ability to connect with people and resources to create opportunities for students with disabilities (Tilson & Simonsen, 2013). Researchers involved in the second qualitative study (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2015) conducted focus groups with key members of CIRCLES, which is a service delivery model that aims to improve interagency collaboration for transitioning students with disabilities. Members of the focus group felt that the CIRCLES’ framework improved the sense of collaboration and awareness of services available in their districts (Povenmire-Kirk et al., 2015). One of the mixed methods studies (Rothman et al., 2008) found that high school counselors should collaborate with VR counselors to match career goals to student strengths and abilities. The second mixed methods study (Luecking & Luecking, 2015) described system linkages and collaboration as a primary component of the MSTC intervention.

4.2.1 Previous or early work experience

Eight studies reported the value of previous or early work experience in supporting employment post-transition (Crudden, 2012; Giesen & Cavenaugh 2012; Fabian, Lent & Willis, 1998; Luecking & Wittenburg, 2009; Madaus, 2006; McDonnall, 2011; Simonsen & Neubert, 2012; Wehman et al., 2015). Of these, five studies were secondary data analyses and identified previous employment as strongly significant. Three studies reported that paid work during secondary school predicted employment following graduation (Giesen & Cavenaugh 2012; Simonsen & Neubert, 2012; Wehman et al., 2015).

Simonsen and Neubert (2012) note that students with disabilities who participated in paid work during school were 4.53 times more likely to participate in integrated employment. Likewise, Wehman et al. reported that employment in high school was the most significant predictor of post-high school employment (p = 0.0004) (2015). In addition, career awareness training (p = 0.0216) and attending a vocational school (p = 0.0151) is associated with post-high school employment (Wehman et al., 2015). McDonnall (2011) also finds early work experience to be a significant predictor of employment (p = .002) and, in addition, offers data showing that the number of jobs held to be an additional predictor. In her study, students with disabilities who held two jobs over the past two years were between 1.6 to 2.1 times more likely to be employed than those who held no jobs in the two years before the survey (McDonnall, 2011). Finally, in an analysis of the Marriott Foundation’s “Bridges from school to work” program, students’ work-related behaviors were the best predictors of paid employment following internship completion (Fabian et al., 1998).

The three qualitative studies each identified the skills learned in “practical on-the-job situations” as the primary benefit of work-based learning (Mad-aus, 2006). One article offers three case studies that demonstrate how on-the-job experience can translate into employment following the end of a school-based employment intervention (Luecking & Wittenburg, 2009). While participants in all these studies cited internships or other time-limited transitional employment as a good way to gain this experience, VR counselors who participated in a series of focus groups recommended developing and practicing interviewing, communication, and job readiness skills in a variety of different ways (Crudden, 2012). These included: camps, summer jobs, school-sponsored work activities, after-school employment, volunteer work, job shadowing, supported employment, on-the-job trainings, and internships (Crudden, 2012).

4.2.2 Supplemental security income payments

Supplemental Security Income payments may act as barriers to employment for students with disabilities. Being aware of these barriers may allow VR professionals to more effectively assist students with disabilities in exploring careers. Four studies discussed the role that SSI plays in encouraging or discouraging employment among students with disabilities (Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2012; Hemmeter, 2014; Luecking & Wittenburg, 2009; McDonnall, 2011). Of these, one was a randomized controlled trial (RCT), one was a series of case studies, and two were secondary data analyses. The RCT and the case studies were both part of the same program evaluation of the Social Security Administration’s “Youth Transition Demonstration” project (Hemmeter, 2014; Luecking & Wittenburg, 2009). The Youth Transition Demonstration recognized the limits on earning potential that accompany SSI payments as a fundamental barrier to participant employment, and so structured the program around this recognition. Because the purpose of the project was to identify interventions that would improve the educational and vocational outcomes with youth who qualify for SSI payments, or Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) payments, Youth Transition Demonstration supplied participants with waivers of certain SSI and SSDI rules that limit SSI eligibility for those over a certain threshold of income. In the RCT, “the program waivers allow the treatment group youths to keep more of their income and remain in the program longer than the control group youths. Combined with the earnings results, the waivers may indicate better employment outcomes for treatment group youths” (Hemmeter, 2014, p. 21). However, because the intervention is still underway, it is too early to determine the overall effectiveness of the Youth Transition Demonstration. The case studies support this conclusion by illustrating three successful examples of the Youth Transition Demonstration (Luecking & Wittenburg, 2009).

Of the two studies that were secondary data analyses, the first found that receipt of SSI income payments at the time of application was a significant negative predictor of employment (Giesen & Cavenaugh, 2012). However, Giesen and Cavenaugh (2012) also note that the receipt of SSDI, which is available only to persons who have worked for a cer-tain amount of time, does not have a negative association with employment. Likewise, the second study examined predictors of employment in students with disabilities with visual impairments (McDonnall, 2011). While this study found the receipt of SSI benefits to be a significant negative predictor on its own, the recent receipt of SSI benefits was much less significant when considered in combination with other variables. Because the receipt of SSI benefits is a major barrier to employment for people with visual impairments, the author suggests that these barriers may be more significant to older adults with visual impairments. McDonnall (2011) suggests that this discrepancy could be indirectly caused by persons with visual impairments being prevented from gaining early work experience when they were younger because of receiving SSI payments.

4.2.3 Mentoring and other work-based social supports

Five studies, four of which were qualitative, cited the importance of work-based social supports—including mentoring, role models, or other work-based advocates—as a factor that supports successful employment (Crudden, 2012; Lindsay et al., 2012; Madaus, 2006; Stone et al., 2015; Verhoef et al., 2014). Two qualitative studies identified mentoring as beneficial to transitioning into employment (Lindsay et al., 2012; Madaus, 2006). When asked how transition services could be improved, survey respondents suggested that their colleges establish mentoring programs between current students and graduates with disabilities, which they felt would allow students to see what can be achieved (Madaus, 2006). Likewise, participants in the study conducted by Lindsay et al. (2012) reported increased self-confidence following an employment-training program, which some youth attributed to their contact with peer-mentors. Furthermore, both parents and youth in the study expressed that they would have liked to continue with a mentor or buddy system after the program ended. One study conducted focus groups with VR counselors (Crudden, 2012). Participants in these focus groups suggested providing visually impaired youth with role models who are both blind and sighted as a means of developing positive social skills (Crudden, 2012). Another study (Verhoef et al., 2014), while it did not evaluate for mentoring specifically, included mentoring as a component in an intervention that was ultimately found to result in improved occupational performance, self-care, and satisfaction with performance. Finally, most participants in Stone et al. (2015) believed that it would be beneficial for their supervisors to be aware of their disability, as they felt that this would result in more access to workplace supports and accommodations, social or otherwise.

4.3.1 Disclosure and disability awareness

Five studies support the importance and training of students with disabilities in the process, risks, and benefits of disclosure (Lindsay & DePape, 2015; Lindsay et al., 2012; Lindsay, McDougall & Sanford, 2013; Newman et al., 2016; Rothman & Maldonado, 2008). One of the studies (Newman et al., 2016) used data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS-2), which represents thousands of students with disabilities, to examine if transition planning in high school later helps students request accommodations in a postsecondary setting. The authors note that transition plans need to reflect reasonable accommodations that students with disabilities can request and control in educational settings, which VR counselors can help inform (Newman et al., 2016). A survey of 27 students with disabilities attending a pre-college summer transition program found that students with disabilities are often reluctant to disclose their disability due to fear of stigma and bias (Rothman et al., 2008). At the same time, Rothman and Maldonado (2008) reported that participants reported that self-advocacy as the most important contributor to their success in future employment.

The team led by Lindsay et al. (2012) conducted semi-structured interviews with eighteen students with disabilities that participated in a skills development training program, which included practicing how and when to disclose a disability. Some of the participants concluded that working helped them practice explaining their condition and need for accommodations (Lindsay et al., 2012). Similarly, in another study Lindsay et al. conducted interviews to determine if students with disabilities disclose their disability (2013). Fourteen of the 18 participants who had participated in a 2-year employment training program reported difficulty in knowing how to disclose their condition prior to taking the job. The authors suggest that their study reveals the importance and need for disclosure skills in students with disabilities. Another study conducted interviews to explore how answers given during job interviews differ between students with disabilities and their peers without disabilities (Lindsay & DePape, 2015). The authors state some research has shown that students with disabilities are rated more favorably by potential employers when they disclose their condition early during job interviews. However, Lindsay and DePape (2015) also warn that disclosing disabilities can harm potential job prospects if the employer has negative attitudes toward people with disabilities.

4.3.2 Workplace accommodations and rights

Three studies identified workplace accommodations as a factor that supports successful employment for students with disabilities (Crudden, 2012; Lindsay et al., 2013; Rothman & Maldonado (2008)). Two of these studies (Crudden, 2012; Lindsay et al., 2013) used a qualitative design. Both studies found that students with disabilities needed to be engaged in self-ad-vocacy activities sufficiently to identify needed acc-ommodations to support gainful employment and/or to understand their rights with respect to possible on the job discrimination actions. Another study (Rothman & Maldonado, 2008) addressed students with disabilities’ transition to college life and assessed the effects of a one-week program that addressed issues related to advocacy skills and seeking accommodations. Exit interviews with the students indicate that they found the one-week program to be beneficial (Rothman & Maldonado, 2008).

4.3.3 Self-determination

Eleven studies examined the importance of self-determination for students with disabilities in obtaining employment (Bal et al., 2017; Brewer et al., 2011; Carter, Austin & Trainor, 2011; Crudden, 2012; Greene, 2014; Foley et al., 2012; Luecking & Wittenburg, 2009; McDonnall, 2011; McDonnall & Crudden, 2009; Newman, et al., 2016; Simonsen & Neubert, 2012). 1 Six of the studies (Brewer et al., 2011; Carter et al., 2011; McDonnall, 2011; McDonnall & Crudden, 2009; Newman et al., 2016; Simonsen & Neubert, 2012) were quantitative and used data drawn from state and national databases to analyze the impact of self-determination training such as goal setting, job seeking and choices, decision-making, problem-solving, job seeking/readiness skills and job choices on successful employment. Each of these six studies highlight the link between self-determination training/skills and successful employment for students with disabilities. For example, Brewer et al. (2011) found that the more students were involved with career development activities, which include self-determination training, the more likely they were to participate in work-related experiences. Similarly, McDonnall and Crudden (2009) found that self-determination skills were associated with greater employment outcomes for visually impaired students upon transition. Three of the studies (Bal et al., 2017; Crudden, 2012; Luecking & Wittenburg, 2009) were qualitative in design. Each three of these studies acknowledge that self-determination factors such as self-esteem, decision-making, problem-solving, and job-seeking skills can help students with disabilities find employment. The last two studies were literature reviews. The first literature review (Foley et al., 2012) found evidence that students with disabilities who exhibited more self-determination demonstrated more advanced outcomes in many employment categories. The study’s authors concluded that more service models are needed to promote the success of students with disabilities (Foley et al., 2012). Finally, Greene (2014) summarized the literature on cultural/linguistic sensitivity in relation to self-advocacy and self-determination. Greene (2014) concluded that students with disabilities from minority cultures/languages face unique challenges (i.e., racial and cultural stereotypes, immigration issues, lack of language proficiency) with respect to self-advocacy and self-determination and that special attention should be given to the development of these skills in the context of the student’s cultural/linguistic identity.

4.4.1 Communication/interview skills

Seven studies found that communication/interview skills can help students with disabilities obtain emp-loyment (Carter et al., 2011; Crudden, 2012; Lindsay & DePape, 2015; Lindsay et al., 2012; McDonnall, 2011; Stone et al., 2015; Verhoef et al., 2014). Of the seven studies, two used a quantitative analysis of the NLTS2 database (Carter et al., 2011; McDonnall, 2011). Carter et al. (2011) found that students with disabilities who communicated well with others and were independent in self-care had nearly three times the odds of having paid work than students who had trouble communicating. McDonall (2011) states that previous research has identified communication skills as a key factor for successful employment. Another study (Verhoef et al., 2014) used a pre-post design to evaluate how participants’ occupational performance changed over time in a multidisciplinary VR intervention, which used job interview training as a component. The study found that students with disabilities who participated in the intervention showed improved occupational performance at work (Verhoef et al., 2014).

Four studies using a qualitative design including interviews (Lindsay & DePape, 2015; Lindsay et al., 2012; Stone et al., 2015) and focus groups (Crudden, 2012) also identified the need for communication and interview skills for successful employment. Stone et al. (2015) interviewed Hispanic and non-Hispanic students with disabilities and found that these students emphasized needing more assistance with job interview skills. Lindsay et al. (2012) interviewed students with disabilities participating in an employment training program that used practice interviews as a component. The majority of participants stated that the practice interviews were a helpful feature of the program (Lindsay et al., 2012). Lindsay and DePape (2015) performed a content analysis of mock interview responses from both students with disabilities and their typically developing peers. The authors (Lindsay & DePape, 2015) found that students with disabilities often faced more challenges during the interview process, such as responding to scenario-based problem-solving questions. Crudden (2012) conducted focus groups with rehabilitation state agency personnel regarding best service delivery practices. Focus group participants recommended that VR personnel conduct a situational assessment of interviewing, communication, and job readiness skills (Crudden, 2012).

4.4.2 Social skills support

A total of six studies were identified as addressing the topic of social skills in terms of development, need, or barrier to successful transition programming for students with disabilities (Crudden, 2012; Lindsay et al., 2012; Luft, 2012; McDonnall, 2011; Noel et al., 2017; Verhoef et al., 2014). Interestingly, few of the studies indicated what specific behaviors were associated with social skill development or programming. Inclusion of social skills training for students with disabilities is typically related to work performance and success with co-workers, employers, and customers. The most common reference given was to ‘social skills’, ‘social contact’, or ’social interactions’ but without example, illustration or definition. In some instances, social skills were demonstrated in the context of the interview or career training (Lindsay et al., 2012; Noel et al., 2017), peer activity (Verhoef et al., 2014), or interpersonal interaction (Crudden, 2012; Luft, 2012). Only two of the studies provided a quantifiable result of training for social skill measurement (McDonnall, 2011; Verhoef et al., 2014). A large national observational study (McDonnall, 2011) found that social activities related to peer interactions were significantly related to post-school employment. Similarly, a pre-post single group study (Verhoef et al., 2014) found a positive effect on employment for students with disabilities that understood the nature of social skill use at work, home and in social life.

4.4.3 Transportation

Six studies addressed transportation access, competency, or barriers as a significant factor in both school-based and post-school-based employment (Carter et al., 2011; Crudden, 2012; Lindsay et al., 2012; McDonnall, 2011; Noel et al., 2009; Verhoef et al., 2014). Two studies (Carter et al., 2011; McDonnall, 2011) analyzed data from the NLTS2 database. Carter et al. (2011) found that the availability of transportation for people with disabilities was positively associated with employment. McDonnall (2011) reported that difficulty with transportation was a significant predictor of post-school unemployment. Another study (Lindsay et al., 2012) interviewed eighteen students with disabilities that attended a school-based summer program. Participants in the program reported difficulty with transportation to be a substantial barrier to sustained employment and found the transportation skill training to be a valuable part of the program (Lindsay et al., 2012). Another study (Noel et al., 2017) conducted a survey of the Illinois Balancing Incentive Program and reported that 38%of participants in eight of the programs assessed indicated that difficulty with transportation was a major barrier to work. In a pre- post intervention study, Verhoef et al. (2014) concluded that interventions aimed at improving employment for students with disabilities not only should address issues at work, but also problems in self-care such as transportation to work.