The relationship between intuitive eating,eating disorders,and body image perceptions in young adult women

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The term intuitive eating is a new concept that has emerged in recent years. It is a way of eating that is based on responding to the body’s natural signals of hunger and satiety.

OBJECTIVE:

The study was conducted to evaluate the relationship between intuitive eating and eating disorders and body image perception in young adult women.

METHODS:

The study was conducted with 400 women aged 19–35 years. The data were collected with the Figure Rating Scale, the Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2), and the Eating Attitude Test-26.

RESULTS:

The mean body mass index was significantly higher in individuals who misperceived their body image. While 51.4% of the participants with normal eating behavior had appropriate body image perception, 38.8% of the participants with abnormal eating behavior had appropriate body image perception. The IES-2 total score was significantly lower in women with abnormal eating behavior and overweight/obese women.

CONCLUSIONS:

Our findings showed that intuitive eating is negatively associated with abnormal eating behavior and obesity in young adult women and that women with low intuitive eating inclinations misperceived their body image.

Keywords

Eating disorder body image perception intuitive eating obesity body mass index

1 Introduction

Restrictive diet programs are effective for body weight control [1]. However, relevant literature reports that individuals who constantly try such diets to lose weight gain weight again over time [2, 3]. They may also develop weight fluctuations [4], low self-esteem [5, 6], depression [7], and eating disorder symptoms [8] as a result of restrictive diets. Restrictive nutrition/diets that cause all these risks are not suitable for a sustainable healthy lifestyle in the long term [9].

Eating behavior is affected by many factors like social environment, mood, professional life, and stress [10]. Intuitive eating, unlike restrictive diets and the individual’s emotional state, is based on the individual’s consuming food at any time and without restriction in response to the hunger signal [11]. Intuitive eating, which plays a role as the main regulator of hunger and satiety on food consumption, is a diet that encourages individuals to get energy when they are physically hungry and is defined as a dynamic process in which mind, body, and food harmony are integrated [12, 13]. This nutritional approach focuses on the individual’s consuming the food s/he wants because s/he thinks her/his body needs it, emotional, social, or environmental factors do not affect food consumption, and the main determinant is the feeling of satiety. It also embraces the idea that accepting body image is as important as the food consumed [14, 15].

The concept of “intuitive eating” emerged in the 1980s with the anti-diet movement based on the hypothesis that restrictive diets cannot be sustained throughout life [16] and was evaluated by the scale developed by Hawks et al. (2004) [17]. The scale was later revised by Tylka (2006) to better reflect intuitive eating behavior [18, 19].

Recent studies have revealed that the components of the intuitive eating scale are negatively associated with various risk factors that cause eating disorders, such as the desire to have a slim body, pressure to lose weight, body image dissatisfaction, lack of self-awareness, and emotional eating [9 , 19–21] and individuals who adopt this diet have a reduced desire for emotional eating, and improved body image perception and self-esteem [22, 23]. Additionally, those with a normal body mass index (BMI) have higher intuitive eating scores than overweight and obese ones [24]. It is thought that this relationship is because foods are not classified as forbidden in the intuitive diet for weight control, unlike restrictive diets, and that individuals do not engage in diet and food, but desire food options to help their bodys’ functioning [18].

2 Study aims and hypotheses

Although intuitive eating has attracted the attention of researchers recently, the number of studies with Turkish women is very few. In particular, its relationship with body image perception and eating behavior disorder has been little studied. Considering its recent acceptance as an alternative to a restrictive diet, it would be valuable to investigate the issue in Turkish women and compare it with studies conducted with other ethnic groups. In our study, we assumed that individuals with normal eating behavior and normal body weight according to BMI would have higher Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2) total scores and IES-2 subscale scores than those with eating disorders and overweight/obese ones. We predicted that the food consumption would not change according to the mood of the intuitive eaters and that individuals with a high body mass index would misperceive their body image. We aimed to evaluate the relationship between intuitive eating and eating disorders and body image perception in young adult women and contribute to the existing literature by gaining deeper insight into the role of intuitive eating in an appropriate body image perception to reduce eating behavior disorders in young adult women. The effect of intuitive eating, which researchers consider an alternative to restrictive diets in the treatment of obesity, on the body mass index of young adult women will also be revealed.

3 Method

3.1 Study design and participants

This is a cross-sectional study conducted with 400 female students aged 19–35 (Mean = 22.6, SD = 3.3) studying at Gazi University and Karadeniz Technical University. The inclusion criteria were being female, a university student, and 19–35 years old. The research data were collected by the researchers via face-to-face interview method using a questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of general information, health information, body composition, anthropometric measurements, the body figure scale, the intuitive eating scale-2 (IES-2), and the eating attitude test (EAT-26).

“Ethics Committee Approval” dated 11.12.18 and numbered 2018-442 was obtained from Gazi University Ethics Committee. Participants were verbally informed about the content and duration of the study, and verbal or written consent was obtained from those who agreed to participate in the study with a voluntary consent form in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

In the power analysis with GPower 3.1.9.2 version, 372 samples were calculated with beta 95% power, d = 0.8 effect size, and 5% margin of error. We reached 462 people for the study, but 62 people were excluded because of not completing the study.

3.2 Measures

3.2.1 Body Composition and Anthropometric Measurements

Tanita BC 532 brand portable body analyzer (bioelectric impedance analysis, BIA) was used to measure body weight (kg) and body fat percentage (%). Weight measurements were recorded in kg with an accuracy of 0.1 kg. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated with the equation “body weight/height² (kg/m²)” using body weight and height measurements. BMI values (kg/m²) were evaluated according to the WHO classification (underweight < 18,5; normal 18.5–24.9; overweight 25.0–29.9, and obese≥30.0) [25, 26].

3.2.2 The Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2)

The IES-2 is a 23-item, 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree) tool that discusses the four main components of intuitive eating: unconditional permission to eat (UPE; 6 items), eating for physical reasons (EPR; 8 items), reliance on hunger and satiety cues (RHSC; 6 items), and body-food choice congruence (B-FCC; 3 items) [19]. The validity and reliability study of the Turkish version was done by Baş et al. (2017) [20]. Higher scores indicate a greater tendency to eat intuitively.

3.2.3 The Eating Attitude Test (EAT-26)

The EAT-26 was developed by Mintz and O’Halloran (2000) [27] to measure symptoms of anorexia nervosa and is widely used to identify and screen eating disorders in both clinical and non-clinical studies [28]. The EAT-26 is a shortened and more economical version of the EAT-40 scale [29]. The 26-item test is scored with a 6-item Likert-type scale with answers ranging from “never” to “always”. Scores equal to or greater than 20 indicate abnormal eating attitudes and behaviors [27]. The validity and reliability of the Turkish version were performed by Ergüney-Okumuş and Sertel-Berk (2019) with a university sample [30].

3.2.4 Body figure perceptions

Body image perception was evaluated with the Figure Rating Scale developed by Stunkard (1983) [31]. The Figure Rating Scale includes nine silhouettes, with 1 as the thinnest body type and 9 as the most obese type, respectively. Participants are asked to mark which figure they most resemble (perceived body size). According to the scale, those marking 1 and 2 perceive their body image as underweight; 3 and 4 as normal weight; 5, 6, and 7 as overweight; and 8 and 9 as obese [32].

3.3 Data analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS Statistics 20.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) package program. Sociodemographic data, anthropometric measurements, eating attitude test score, total IES-2 score, subscales, BMI, and body figure scale were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Mean and standard deviation values of continuous variables and percentage values of categorical variables are given. The conformity of the data to the normal distribution was examined using visual (histogram and probability graphs) and analytical methods (Kolmogorov-Smirnov/Shapiro-Wilk tests) in the statistical evaluation of the data. Spearman/Pearson correlation tests were used to evaluate the relationships between different parameters. The results were evaluated at the 95% confidence interval, and p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

4 Results

According to the results, the mean age of 400 women in the study was 22.6±3.3 years. While 48.9% of the participants reported an increase in food consumption according to their mood, the mood that caused the highest increase in food consumption was found to be “stressful” (31.8%). 21.2% (n = 85) had EAT-26 Eating Attitude Test score≥20 (abnormal eating behavior), and 51.3% had body image misperception (Table 1). The Intuitive Eating Scale total score, eating for physical rather than emotional reasons, and reliance on hunger and satiety cues were statistically significantly lower in women with increased food consumption according to mood and in overweight/obese women (p < 0.01) (Table 2).

Table 1
Demographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements and health status of the study population

Variables N=400

Age (years) 22.6±3.3

Increase in food consumption according to the mood

Yes 196 (48.9)

Upset 97 (24.3)

Stressful 127 (31.8)

Angry 54 (13.5)

Happy 91 (22.6)

No 204 (51.1)

Number of main meals 2.54±0.53

1 7 (1.8)

2 170 (42.5)

3 223 (55.7)

Number of snacks 1.73±0.83

≤1 155 (38.7)

≥2 245 (61.3)

BMI (kg/m²) 21.7±3.27

BMI classification

Underweight (≤18.4 kg/m²) 51 (12.8)

Normal weight (18.5–24.9 kg/m²) 298 (74.5)

Overweight (25-29.9 kg/m²) 43 (10.8)

Obesity (≥30 kg/m²) 8 (2.0)

Body fat percentage (%) 24.8±6.90

EAT-26 score 13.65±7.92

Normal eating behavior (EAT-26 < 20) 315 (78.8)

Abnormal eating behavior (EAT-26≥20) 85 (21.2)

IES-2 total score 3.40±0.45

Subscales

UPE 3.21±0.73

EPR 3.42±0.89

RHSC 3.63±0.68

B-FCC 3.32±0.68

Body image perception

Appropriate perception 195 (48.8)

Misperception 205 (51.3)

Perceived > Appropriate 11 (2.8)

Perceived < Appropriate 194 (48.5)

Variables	N=400
Age (years)	22.6±3.3
Increase in food consumption according to the mood
Yes	196 (48.9)
Upset	97 (24.3)
Stressful	127 (31.8)
Angry	54 (13.5)
Happy	91 (22.6)
No	204 (51.1)
Number of main meals	2.54±0.53
1	7 (1.8)
2	170 (42.5)
3	223 (55.7)
Number of snacks	1.73±0.83
≤1	155 (38.7)
≥2	245 (61.3)
BMI (kg/m²)	21.7±3.27
BMI classification
Underweight (≤18.4 kg/m²)	51 (12.8)
Normal weight (18.5–24.9 kg/m²)	298 (74.5)
Overweight (25-29.9 kg/m²)	43 (10.8)
Obesity (≥30 kg/m²)	8 (2.0)
Body fat percentage (%)	24.8±6.90
EAT-26 score	13.65±7.92
Normal eating behavior (EAT-26 < 20)	315 (78.8)
Abnormal eating behavior (EAT-26≥20)	85 (21.2)
IES-2 total score	3.40±0.45
Subscales
UPE	3.21±0.73
EPR	3.42±0.89
RHSC	3.63±0.68
B-FCC	3.32±0.68
Body image perception
Appropriate perception	195 (48.8)
Misperception	205 (51.3)
Perceived > Appropriate	11 (2.8)
Perceived < Appropriate	194 (48.5)

Note: Data are mean±SD or n (%). Abbreviations: BMI: Body mass index, EAT-26: Eating attitudes test-26, IES-2: Intuitive eating scale-2, UPE: Unconditional permission to eat, EPR: Eating for physical rather than emotional reasons, RHSC: Reliance on hunger and satiety cues, B-FCC: Body-food choice congrue

Table 2

IES-2 scores of the individuals according to emotional eating status, BMI classification and body image perception

	Increase in food consumption			BMI classification				Body image perception
	according to the mood
	Yes	No	p	Underweight	Normal	Overweight/	p	Appropriate	Misperception	p
					weight	Obesity		perception
	(n = 196)	(n = 204)		(n = 51)	(n = 198)	(n = 51)		(n = 195)	(n = 205)
IES-2 total score	3.20±0.42	3.59±0.40	< 0.001	3.57±0.44	3.42±0.44	3.10±0.43	< 0.001	3.42±0.45	3.38±0.45	0.32
UPE	3.21±0.74	3.21±0.73	0.97	3.39±0.76	3.20±0.73	3.08±0.70	0.10	3.24±0.70	3.17±0.77	0.32
EPR	2.94±0.75	3.88±0.77	< 0.001	3.70±0.91	3.44±0.90	2.99±0.74	< 0.001	3.42±0.91	3.42±0.87	0.98
RHSC	3.53±0.69	3.74±0.66	0.002	3.78±0.60	3.68±0.67	3.20±0.67	< 0.001	3.67±0.70	3.60±0.66	0.29
B-FCC	3.35±0.66	3.29±0.70	0.38	3.32±0.65	3.33±0.70	3.24±0.64	0.71	3.38±0.61	3.26±0.74	0.07

Note: Data are mean±SD. Abbreviations: BMI: Body mass index, IES-2: Intuitive eating scale-2, UPE: Unconditional permission to eat, EPR: Eating for physical rather than emotional reasons, RHSC: Reliance on hunger and satiety cues, B-FCC: Body-food choice congruence.

98.0% of underweight, 45.3% of normal weight, and 19.6% of overweight/obese participants had appropriate body image perception according to BMI classifications (p < 0.001). The mean BMI was significantly higher in individuals with increased food consumption according to the mood (p < 0.001). The proportion of underweight, normal-weight, and overweight/obese individuals with an increase in food consumption according to their mood was 29.4%, 48.3%, and 72.5%, respectively (p < 0.001) (Table 3 and Fig. 1).

Table 3

Body image perception, and emotional eating state of the individuals according to the BMI classification

	BMI		BMI classification
	Mean±SD	p	Underweight	Normal	Overweight/	p
				weight	Obesity
			(n = 51)	(n = 298)	(n = 51)
			n (%)	n (%)	n (%)
Perceived body image
Appropriate perception	21.2±2.69	< 0.001	50 (98.0)	135 (45.3)	10 (19.6)
Misperception	22.2±3.68		1 (2.0)	163 (54.7)	41 (80.4)	< 0.001
Perceived > Appropriate			1 (2.0)	10 (3.4)	–
Perceived < Appropriate			–	53 (51.3)	41 (80.4)
Increase in food consumption according to the mood
Yes	22.5±3.61	< 0.001	15 (29.4)	144 (48.3)	37 (72.5)	< 0.001
No	21.0±2.73		36 (70.6)	154 (51.7)	14 (27.5)

Abbreviations: BMI: Body mass index.

Fig. 1

Distribution the individuals’ body perceptions according to body mass index classification.

While 51.4% of the participants with normal eating behavior had appropriate body image perception, this rate was 38.8% in those with abnormal eating behavior (p < 0.05). The EAT-26 score of participants who ate 1 or 2 main meals was found to be significantly higher (risk of abnormal eating behavior) than those who ate 3 main meals (p < 0.001). The IES-2 total score and the unconditional permission to eat sub-score were significantly lower in participants with abnormal eating behavior than in those with normal eating behavior (p < 0.05; p < 0.001, respectively) (Table 4 and Fig. 2).

Table 4

BMI, body image perception, number of meals, and IES-2 scores of the individuals according to the EAT-26\\ score and EAT-26 classification

	EAT-26 score		EAT-26 classification
	Mean±SD	p	< 20	≥20	p
			(n = 315)	(n = 85)
BMI, mean±SD			21.6±3.16	22.0±3.64	0.36
BMI
Underweight	13.96±7.12	0.83	39 (12.4)	12 (14.1)	0.63
Normal weight	13.51±8.05		238 (75.5)	60 (70.6)
Overweight/obesity	14.16±8.03		38 (12.1)	13 (15.3)
Body image perception
Appropriate perception	12.95±7.38	0.84	162 (51.4)	33 (38.8)	0.04
Misperception	14.32±8.36		153 (48.6)	52 (61.2)
Number of main meals			2.57±0.53	2.41±0.54	0.012
1-2	15.19±8.59	< 0.001	129 (41.0)	48 (56.5)	0.011
3	12.43±7.13		186 (59.0)	37 (43.5)
Number of snacks			1.77±0.83	1.58±0.78
≤1	14.40±8.49	0.13	118 (37.5)	37 (43.5)	0.06
≥2	13.18±7.51		197 (62.5)	48 (56.5)	0.31
IES-2 total score			3.43±0.44	3.29±0.48	0.017
UPE			3.29±0.69	2.92±0.82	< 0.001
EPR			3.44±0.87	3.35±0.95	0.40
RHSC			3.63±0.64	3.63±0.82	0.99
B-FCC			3.30±0.61	3.37±0.92	0.43

Note: Data are mean±SD or n (%). Abbreviations: EAT-26: Eating attitudes test-26, BMI: Body mass index, IES-2: Intuitive eating scale-2, UPE: Unconditional permission to eat, EPR: Eating for physical rather than emotional reasons, RHSC: Reliance on hunger and satiety cues, B-FCC: Body-food choice congruence.

Fig. 2

Intuitive eating scale-2 total score and sub-scores of the individuals with normal eating behavior and abnormal eating behavior.

A negative, statistically significant correlation was found between the IES-2 total score and BMI (r = –0.340; p < 0.001). The IES-2 total score was significantly and negatively correlated with body fat percentage (r = –0.275; p < 0.001) and EAT-26 score (r = –0.123; p = 0.014). As the IES-2 total score increased, BMI, body fat percentage, and abnormal eating behavior decreased (p < 0.05) (Table 5).

Table 5

Correlation analysis of variables

Variables	1		2		3
	r	p	r	p	r	p
1. BMI
2. Body fat percentage	0.844	< 0.001
3. IES-2 total score	– 0.340	< 0.001	– 0.275	< 0.001
4. EAT-26 score	0.046	0.36	0.029	0.57	– 0.123	0.014

Abbreviations: BMI: Body mass index, EAT-26: Eating attitudes test-26, IES-2: Intuitive eating scale-2.

5 Discussion

Few studies have evaluated the relationship between intuitive eating, eating disorders, and body image perception. The frequency of eating disorders in Turkey is not exactly known, but unhealthy eating behaviors have been reported to be more common in younger ages [33]. In this study, we aimed to determine the relationship between intuitive eating and eating disorder and body image perception and the relationship between all these factors and obesity. Our first hypothesis was that individuals with normal eating behavior and normal body weight for BMI would have higher intuitive eating total score and intuitive eating subscale scores than those with eating disorders and overweight/obese. Consistent with our hypothesis, our study revealed that the intuitive eating score was negatively associated with abnormal eating behavior and BMI. Our second hypothesis was that intuitive eaters would not have an increase in food consumption based on their mood, and individuals with a high body mass index would misperceive their body images. In support of our hypothesis, it was determined in the study that intuitive eating scores were lower in those whose food consumption increased according to their mood. It has been observed that women with abnormal eating behavior misperceived their body images and skipped more meals. In addition, BMI was significantly higher in participants who perceived their body image as inappropriate with their actual body weight, and all overweight/obese individuals perceived their body image inappropriately.

Numerous studies have been conducted on intuitive eating behavior and its effects on health [9 , 34]. Cross-sectional studies have emphasized negative correlations between intuitive eating and unhealthy eating behaviors such as unhealthy body weight control, binge eating, and emotional eating, and have shown that intuitive eating is associated with lower BMI and reduced eating disorder symptomatology [35 –37]. In addition, it has been shown that interventions based on intuitive eating principles reduce dietary restriction, the stimulation to lose weight, and depressive symptoms, they have a positive effect on eating behaviors and psychological behaviors such as giving up the obsession with diet, satisfaction with body shape, ideal introspection perception, and self-confidence [38, 39].

Intuitive eaters do not eat for emotional or external reasons. They decide on the food, the amount, and the time to eat, based entirely on their body’s response [39]. It was observed that 48.9% of the participants involved in our study had an increase in food consumption according to their mood and the tendency of these women to eat intuitively according to the IES-2 scale was lower than those without an increase in food consumption. In addition, the sub-score of eating for physical rather than emotional reasons and reliance on hunger and satiety cues sub-scores in the IES-2 scale were found to be statistically significantly lower in these women. Therefore, these findings support the idea that intuitive eating develops a healthy relationship with food by reducing the desire to eat in response to emotional eating and external stimuli.

Intuitive eaters are expected to be naturally inclined to foods that support their health and bodily functions [40]. Unlike restricted consumers who are likely to break their own dietary rules, the lack of such rules by intuitive food eaters can prevent their food cravings. [41]. Negative correlations between intuitive eating and BMI have been demonstrated in several studies [42, 43]. Eating in response to external stimuli and pressures has been reported to be associated with weight gain, as opposed to internal stimuli such as physiological hunger and satiety [44, 45]. Our study demonstrated that the average BMI of women whose food consumption increased based on mood was higher than other women. The rate of those who increased their food consumption according to their mood in overweight/obese individuals was significantly higher than in normal and underweight individuals. IES-2 total score, eating for physical rather than emotional reasons, reliance on hunger and satiety cues were found to be significantly lower, and the tendency to intuitive eating was found to be lower in overweight/obese women. Moreover, negative significant correlations were found between intuitive eating and BMI and body fat. It has been reported in the literature that intuitive eating proposes a model of weight control versus restrictive eating by teaching to eat in response to hunger and satiety indicators [46]. The low BMI values of women who tend to eat intuitively in our study are consistent with this information.

Body image is a multidimensional concept that includes perceptions, emotions, and attitudes regarding one’s physical appearance [46]. Bruce and Ricciardelli (2016) showed in a systematic review that intuitive eating is also associated with positive body image perceptions like body appreciation and body satisfaction. [34]. In our study, the IES-2 total score and sub-scores of participants with appropriate body image perception were higher, although not significant. The mean BMI of those with inappropriate body image perception was found to be significantly higher. Inappropriate perception of body image of overweight/obese participants is significantly higher than normal and underweight participants. Therefore, based on these results, the fact that overweight/obese individuals know their bodies less may cause less tendency to eat intuitively.

Unlike restrictive diets, which often limit dietary energy intake and types of food, intuitive eating improves the ability to form a beneficial relationship with food without thinking about weight loss [46]. A review indicated that research applying intuitive eating criteria reduce impaired eating behaviors such as restricted eating, and uncontrolled eating [47]. There is some research supporting intuitive eating as a useful model to reduce negative dietary habits and behaviors. For example, in a study by Hawks et al., a 15-week program that promoted hunger-dependent eating resulted in reduced dieting among female college students [23]. Linardon and Mitchell (2017) emphasized that intuitive eating, in contrast to strict dietary control, was associated with lower levels of impaired eating behavior and body image anxiety in a sample of 372 men and women [35]. Duarte, Gouveia, and Mendes (2016) drew attention to the negative correlation between IES-2 and BMI, eating psychopathology, especially uncontrolled eating and body shamming [37]. Van Dyck et al. (2016) found that most of the IES-2 total score and subscale scores were negatively related to eating behavior and appetite disorder, body image discontent, and emotional perception problems in a study they conducted with 1134 German women aged 18–77 years. They also reported that the IES-2 total scores and all subscale scores of women with abnormal eating behavior were significantly lower than those of women with normal eating behavior [39]. Consistent with these findings, our study also revealed that participants with abnormal eating behavior had significantly lower IES-2 total score and unconditional permission to eat sub-score than those with normal eating behavior. A significant negative correlation was also observed between intuitive eating and the risk of eating disorders. Our findings are also consistent with other studies suggesting that intuitive eating is negatively associated with eating behavior disorder [19 , 48].

In our study, the ratio of inappropriate perception of body image in participants with eating behavior disorders was found to be significantly higher than in those with normal eating behavior. It was observed that the average number of main meals in participants with normal eating behavior was significantly higher than in those with eating behavior disorder. The risk of eating behavior disorder in participants with 3 main meals is significantly lower than those who consumed fewer main meals. While the rate of those consuming 3 main meals was 59.0% in participants with normal eating behavior, it was determined as 43.0% in those with eating behavior disorder. Although not significant, the EAT-26 scores of overweight/obese participants were found to be higher than the others, and the overweight/obese ratio was higher in those with eating disorders. In a study conducted by Yılmaz, Ayaz, and Büyüktuncer Demirel (2013) on 500 female students, 8.8% of the participants were reported to have abnormal eating behavior (EAT-26≥20). Of the 44 participants with an EAT-26 score above 20, 13.6% were underweight, 68.2% had normal body weight, 13.6% were overweight, and 4.5% were obese. The difference between the distribution of EAT-26 scores according to the participants’ BMI and perceived body images was found to be statistically significant [49]. Therefore, it can be said that individuals with eating behavior disorders skip more meals, are not aware of their body image, and have more weight gain problems, as expected.

6 Limitations

This study has some limitations. It was carried out only with female volunteers aged 19–35 years. It would be beneficial for future studies to cover young adult men and older women. Also, as this study only included Turkish women, it is unclear whether the present findings can be generalized to other ethnic groups.

7 Conclusion

In conclusion, in recent years, the focus of some researchers has shifted from weight loss to adopting healthy eating behaviors independent of body weight, which is called intuitive eating. Accordingly, research on guiding eating behavior through the understanding of physiological hunger-satiety signals is increasing day by day. Overall findings suggest that promoting intuitive eating may be beneficial in public health approaches to preventing eating disorders. Meanwhile, special emphasis should be placed on promoting the acceptance of body image.

It’s also important to note that most research to date on intuitive eating has focused on young college women. While the current study is consistent with this trend, future studies should aim to address larger groups for the generalizability of results. For example, it would be helpful to evaluate the model with a wider variety of examples, like men and old women.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors have no acknowledgments.

Funding statement

The authors report no funding.

Declaration of interest statement

The authors have no conflict of interest to report.

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