The relationship between emotional intelligence,reaction time,aerobic capacity and performance in female track and field athletes at the Universities of Tehran

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

In order to be successful in sport, athletes need a high level of physical skills as well as cognitive abilities.

OBJECTIVE:

The aim of this studywas to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence, reaction time, aerobic capacity and performance (recorded time) in female track & field athletes at the Universities of Tehran.

METHODS:

Data was collected from 100 female athletes participating in sprints.

The emotional intelligence in athletes was measured by the Bar-On questionnaire, the reaction time was assessed by the psychomotor vigilance task, and maximal aerobic capacity was predicted by step test. Pearson correlation calculations were conducted to investigate the potential relationships between emotional intelligence total score, reaction time, and estimated VO2max, with recorded time of the students.

RESULTS:

Average age of female athletes was 20.59 years (±1.55) and mean height of them was 163.63 cm (±6.03).

The mean emotional intelligence in athletes was 302.05 (±20.18), the mean reaction time was 431.14 ms (±114.88), and mean maximal aerobic capacity was predicted as 62.82 ml/ kg.min (±0.6). The findings revealed that there is no significant correlation between emotional intelligence and recorded time or athletic performance (p > 0.05).

There were significant correlations between some components of emotional intelligence (empathy, interpersonal relations, and independence) and athletes’ recorded time. Reaction time and aerobic capacity were significantly correlated with athletes’ performance (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION:

Increased aerobic capacity and decreased response time (reaction time) resulted in better performance (shorter recorded time) in female student athletes.

Keywords

Cardio-respiratory fitness sports cognitive ability recorded time

1 Introduction

The study of ergonomics involves the knowledge created by the integration of life sciences, human physiology, systems and procedures, job design, and work environment [1]. Cognitive ergonomics is a specialized discipline in ergonomics, addressing the mental processes of perception, memory, motor response, and decision-making, which are involved in the interaction between humans and other elements of a system [2].

People in their daily lives and jobs undertake tasks that combine both physical and cognitive (mental) activities, and must maintain optimal performance in both aspects [3]. Sport is known as an activity in which athletes must have superior motor skills in order to improve their performance with practice [4]. In order to be successful in sporting events, athletes need a high level of physical skill as well as motor and cognitive abilities. One of the parameters that allows athletes to perform better is speed or reduced reaction time [3]. Reaction time is one of the most important factors of success in sport and represents one of the human cognitive abilities and is critical to success. In fact, an athlete’s superiority over the other athletes depends mainly on faster responses [5]. Typically, reaction time is measured in milliseconds [6]. Reaction time is a critical factor of success in different sports and could be improved by regularly scheduled training [5]. Moreover, in recent years, coaches and sports scientists have been trying to utilize the information about the emotional characteristics of elite athletes in order to improve athletic performance as well as team performance at different levels of competitions, especially in the Olympic Games. Paying attention to the emotional experience of athletes and their training programs, as well as the ability to control negative emotions and the effort used to improve psychological conditions with tactical and technical preparations, are the most important goals of training sessions in top athletes [7]. When the athletes are trying to achieve team goals, they experience new and uncertain conditions, which may disrupt optimal performance and mental fitness. In addition, these conditions specifically have an impact in major international tournaments in which team results are of utmost importance [7]. Emotional intelligence is a subgroup of social intelligence and includes the ability to identify one’s own emotions, as well as the ability to use this information to guide one’s thoughts and actions. In a study on top athletes in Taekwondo and Judo, high emotional intelligence was directly related to better performance [7]. On the other hand, great physical ability is also needed in addition to cognitive abilities to perform well on tasks in professional sports. Physical performance is also a function of aerobic capacity [8]. Cardiorespiratory fitness is not only a health benefit, but is also an important element in physical stamina contributing to the enhanced capabilities of athletes [9]. The measurement of aerobic work capacity or maximal oxygen consumption as an indicator of cardiorespiratory fitness is the oldest measurements in sport physiology [10].

Running is of great importance in many different sporting events. Thus, having the ability to run well is necessary for achieving desirable athletic results. In the education and training of any sport, achieving higher levels without the development of running is highly unlikely; in other words, running is the basis for many types of sports [11]. Previous studies have addressed the relationships between physical performance and cognitive performance in athletes [12]. Given the importance and influence of emotions as well as physical factors in sprinting, we attempted to identify the relationship between cognitive and physical performance and wins (shorter recorded times) in female students. So, we measured the emotional intelligence and reaction time and also aerobic capacity in track and field athlete students and in the same session we asked them to participate in a sprinting event, then we recorded the time of each athlete in the 100-meter sprint, and the shorter the time, the better the performance of the sprinter in the event. Then we assessed the relationship between cognitive and physical variables and with the recorded times.

2 Methods

2.1 Participants

In this study, 100 female Physical Education students who participated in track and field at Payam Noor University (n = 67) and Tehran University (n = 33), were chosen by random systematic selection. Their ages ranged from 18–22 years. The Karolinska sleepiness scale was used to evaluate the sleepiness and alertness of the participants [13]. A Karolinska score that was below 4 indicated that participants were in an appropriate condition in regards to their alertness. The students whose Karolinska score was less than 4 were eligible to enter the study.

The eligible students who accepted to participate in our study, signed an informed consent form. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences.

2.2 Procedure

Data were collected on four consecutive mornings (8 AM to 12 AM) in one week, at Tehran University faculty field of Physical Education.

Initially, a demographic questionnaire, including age, weight, height, history of exercise or physical activity, history of systemic diseases (cardiovascular diseases, high blood pressure, musculoskeletal disorders, respiratory diseases, sleep disorders, depression), hours of sleep, marital status and hours of exercise per week were distributed among the students. In the next step, the Bar-On emotional intelligence questionnaire was distributed and completed by students. Then, after a warm up, students participated in a step test to predict their maximal aerobic capacity. In order to perform the test, the participant was instructed to step up and down on a step with a height of 30–50 cm (hip angle should be at about a 70-degree angle in a flexion position). The stepping rate was 22 steps per minute for women (24 steps per minute for men) for 3 minutes, based on Queen Step Test protocol [14].

In the final assessment step students performed Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) to assess the reaction time, before they started 100-meter run.

Finally, their times in 100-meter sprints were recorded.

2.3 Measures

2.3.1 Bar-On emotional intelligence questionnaire

Bar-On emotional intelligence questionnaire consists of 90 questions and five options (strongly agree, agree, somewhat disagree, strongly disagree) were distributed and completed by students [15]. The reliability coefficient computed by the Cronbach’s alpha method was (0.68) for students and (0.74) for male students and 0.93 for the entire sample, respectively. We used this tool because of the availability of the valid and reliable Persian version of the instrument [16].

2.3.2 Estimated maximal oxygen uptake

In this study we used the Queen Step Test in order to predict the VO2max. The reliability for heart rate recovery was measured as r = 0.92, and the recovery reliability of the correlation between heart rate and VO2max was measured as r = –0.75.

Participants were given an explanation on how to perform the test. Participants were asked to step up first with the right foot and then the left foot, and to step down they were instructed to step first with the right foot and then the left. Immediately after stepping, the participants sat down and their heart rates were measured after 5–20 seconds and for 15 seconds in the recovery period. Finally, VO2-max was calculated according to the following formula:

VO2max(ml/kg.min) = 65.81–0.1847 × Heart Rate (beat/min) [14].

Step test is an available, acceptable, and cheap method to predict the VO2 max.

2.3.3 Psychomotor vigilance test

Psychomotor vigilance test (PVT) was used to test reaction time [17]. In PVT touch manual, a checkerboard appearing on the screen for 5 milliseconds is indicated as a visual stimulus, and touchdown is the response. PVT protocol requires each stimulus to be delayed by a random time period (usually between 2–10 seconds) referred to as the inter-stimulus interval. The examinee’s response will be during this period and the time period between appearance of stimulus and response of the examinee will be saved as milliseconds. At the end of each PVT test, reaction time data are automatically stored [18].

It is a very precise, valid and reliable tool that we could use to measure the reaction time.

2.3.4 Performance assessment

After measuring the parameters mentioned above, the 100-meter sprint test was conducted. Participants started the 100-meter sprint when they heard the coach’s whistle and their running times were precisely recorded by stopwatch.

2.4 Statistical analysis

Data analysis incorporated SPSS software. Pearson correlation calculations were conducted to investigate the potential relationships between age, emotional intelligence total score, reaction time, estimated VO2max, and body weight, with the recorded time of the students. Also, the correlation between subscales of emotional intelligence and recorded time was assessed using Pearson correlation calculations.

Linear regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of estimated maximal aerobic capacity and the mean reaction time of the students on their record registration.

All statistical analyses were determined to be statistically significant based on an alpha level of 0.05.

3 Results

This study was comprised of 67 Payam Noor University students and 33 students from the Tehran University Faculty of Physical Education.

The demographic characteristics of participants and the mean values of emotional intelligence, reaction time, aerobic capacity, and the maximum and minimum values of these variables are presented in Table 1. The correlation between the variables and performance is presented in Table 2. The correlation between the subscales of emotional intelligence with performance (recorded time) is also presented in Table 3.

Table 1
Description of different variables of participants

Variable Number Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation

Age (year) 100 18 23 20.59 1.56

Emotional intelligence 100 253.00 360.00 302.05 20.18

Reaction time (ms) 100 293.26 958.92 431.14 114.88

Maximal aerobic capacity (ml/kg.min) 100 61.04 63.77 62.82 0.60

Variable	Number	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard deviation
Age (year)	100	18	23	20.59	1.56
Emotional intelligence	100	253.00	360.00	302.05	20.18
Reaction time (ms)	100	293.26	958.92	431.14	114.88
Maximal aerobic capacity (ml/kg.min)	100	61.04	63.77	62.82	0.60

Table 2

Correlation between variables with recorded student time

Variable	Correlation coefficient	P-Value
Age	0.023	0.82
Emotional intelligence	–0.14	0.15
Reaction time	0.22	0.02
Aerobic capacity	–0.20	0.04
Weight	0.19	0.04

Table 3

Correlation between subscales of emotional intelligence and recorded time

Subscales of emotional intelligence	Correlation coefficient	P-Value
Emotional self-awareness	–0.01	0.89
Assertiveness	0.12	0.21
Self-esteem	0.100	0.32
Self-actualization	0.088	0.38
Independency	–0.17	0.04
Sympathy	–0.22	0.02
Social responsibility	–0.05	0.60
Interpersonal relationship	–0.17	0.05
Problem Solving	–0.06	0.54
Realism	0.07	0.49
Flexibility	–0.06	0.54
Mental stress tolerance	–0.13	0.21
Impulse control	–0.15	0.14
Optimism	–0.15	0.13
Happiness	–0.09	0.38

As noted in Table 2, a significant correlation was not found between the general emotional intelligence score and recorded student time, but significant correlations were observed between some subscales of emotional intelligence (independence, empathy, interpersonal relations) and recorded time (P < 0.05).

There is also a significant correlation between reaction time and recorded time (P < 0.05). A significant negative correlation was found between aerobic capacity and recorded time (P < 0.05). However, a correlation between age and recorded time was not statistically significant and a significant correlation was found between weight and recorded time (P < 0.05). It means that the lower weight correlates with better, and the lower recorded time.

To determine the effect of aerobic capacity on record registration, we conducted linear regression analysis and the following regression equation (1) was calculated: $Recorded time = 81 . 03 + (- 0 . 99) VO 2 Max$ (1)

It means that each milliliter per kg minute increase in VO2Max, decreases 0.99 seconds of the recorded time (P value = 0.04).

To determine the effect of the mean reaction time on athlete’s performance (recorded time), the following regression equation (2) was calculated:

$\begin{matrix} Recorded Time = 81 . 03 + (0 . 06) \\ mean reaction time \end{matrix}$ (2)

It means that each millisecond increase in reaction time, increases 0.06 seconds of the recorded time (P value = 0.02).

4 Discussion

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence, reaction time, aerobic capacity and athlete’s performance – measured by the participants’ time in the 100 meter sprint – in students in Tehran University Faculty of Physical Education and students in Payam Noor University. The results showed no significant correlation between emotional intelligence and student performance (recorded time), but there was a significant correlation among the reaction time, aerobic capacity and performance. Emotional intelligence is itself an important factor in predicting an individual’s performance and is introduced as a predictor in success.

The overall level of emotional intelligence among female athlete students was assessed and the mean of overall emotional intelligence score was 302.05 (±20.18). There was not significant correlation between the overall emotional intelligence and recorded time, but there was significant correlation between components of emotional intelligence (independence, empathy, interpersonal relations) and recorded time (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant correlation between the emotional intelligence of students and recorded time. In a study to examine emotional intelligence and performance in female basketball players, it was reported that there was no significant correlation between the general intelligence of athletes with their performance, but significant correlations had been defined between some components of emotional intelligence and performance, [19] which are consistent with the results obtained in this study. In addition, the 2011 study by Abdoli et al. examined the relationship between self-efficiency and emotional intelligence with Golbalyst men’s performance, and showed that there was not a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and performance [20]. Their results are consistent with ours. However, the results of the present study are inconsistent with the results of the studies by Hemmatinejad et al. [7] and Vasiliki and Dimitra [21], which found a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and overall performance. The inconsistency in this study may be due to age limitations or lack of athletic experience in participants. While the current study has been carried out on students, all previous research has been conducted on professional athletes. Another finding in our study is the correlation between reaction time and recorded time. Reaction time is one of the main factors in decision making speed and the speed at which an athlete processes information may affect athletic performance. The average response time obtained was 431.14 ms in our study, and a correlation was detected between reaction time and recorded time in students. Regression analysis in our study showed that a decrease in reaction time resulted in a more favorable performance (shorter recorded time). In another study by Paradisis et al. which investigated the response times and performances of male and female runners in sprinting, reaction time was measured by an electronic timing system, and a significant relationship was obtained between response time and performance in female athletes [22]. These results are also consistent with ours. Also, in a study by Tunisian et al. which examined the response times of male and female runners in the World Cup, it was shown that there was a close relationship between the response times and the performances of female runners in sprinting, which confirms the results of the present study [23]. Pilinidyis et al. in a study on male and female runners participating in the Olympic Games, revealed that there was a significant relationship between reaction time and performance in both male and female groups, which are similar to results obtained in this study [24].

Another relationship examined in this study was the relationship between students’ aerobic capacity and their recorded time. The mean VO2max (Kg.min.ml) was 62.82 (±0.6), and it was revealed that a reverse correlation was between students’ aerobic capacity and recorded time. Regression analysis also showed that an increase in aerobic capacity resulted in better performances (shorter recorded times) by the athletes. Reports from the Thompson and Davis study (1999) on both male and female athletes, independently showed that the aerobic capacity measured by treadmill for women was 58.2 (±4.8) ml per kilogram per minute. Their results are consistent with the result of the present study [25]. Moreover, the study of VO2max value and weight in female athletes and non-athletes of different sports (age range between 17–22 years) by Angell et al. in 2014 that used Queen’s step College, showed a significant correlation between aerobic capacity and weight that confirms the results of our study [26]. The present study also showed an inverse relationship between aerobic capacity and weight. In another study which is consistent with our results about the body weight, participants’ mean body weights differed significantly between time points as training program continued and as a result Vo2 max changed [27].

The results of the survey conducted by Morgan et al. [28], Kengiez et al. [29], and Lgaz et al. [30] implied the relationship between the aerobic capacity with the performance of runners, which are similar to those of previous studies. Determining the amount of aerobic and anaerobic capacity in male sprinters was carried out using a shuttle run test by Zaid Gharbie et al. in (2015). The results of the study by Zaid Gharbie et al. were consistent with the results of our study, however, participants in that study were male [31].

Limitation of our study was our limited access to male athletes, and as a result we could not have data from male participants.

So, it is recommended to perform a survey on larger amounts of athletes from both genders.

5 Conclusion

This study showed no significant correlation between general emotional intelligence in student-athletes and their recorded times on 100-meter sprints but showed that some components of emotional intelligence, such as empathy, interpersonal relations, and independence correlated with the student-athletes’ performance. Also, a significant correlation was shown between emotional intelligence and reaction time, implying that an increase in emotional intelligence resulted in a better response in athletes. In addition, student-athletes with a higher aerobic capacity performed better. It can be said that boosted morale and motivation not only improve aerobic physical function in athletes but can contribute to their success.

Conflict of interest

None to report.

References

Stanton

, Hedge

, Brookhuis

, Salas

, Hendrick

. Handbook Of human Factors And Ergonomics Methods. Boca Raton London New York Washington: CRC Press; 2004.

Group. M. A Guide To Human Factors And Ergonomics. Boca Raton London New York: CRC Press; 2006.

Atan

, Akyol

. Reaction times of different branch athletes and correlation between reaction time parameters. Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2014;2886–9.

Viorel

, Stefan

, Radu

, Eugen

, Daniela

. Intersegmental Coordination and the Performance of Junior Football Players. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2015;174:1666–70.

Foroghipour

, Pirmohammadi

MMOM

, Saboonchi

. Comparison of Simple and Choice Reaction Time in Tennis and Volleyball Players. International Journal of Sport Studies. 2013;3(1):74–9.

Grigore

, Mitrache

, Paunescu

, Predoiu

. The Decision Time, the Simple and the Discrimination Reaction Time in Elite Romanian Junior Tennis Players. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2015;190:539–44.

Hemmatinezhad

, Ramazaninezhd

, Ghezelsefloo

, Hemmatinezhad

. Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and athlete’s mood with team- Efficiency and Performance in elite- handball players. International Journal of Sport Studies. 2012;2(3):155–62.

Firoozeh

, Saremi

, Malek

, Kavousi

. Evaluation of Maximum Aerobic Capacity (VO2max) and Factors Associated with Firefighters. Iran Occupational Health Quarterly. 2015;12(3). [In Persian].

Anbari

, Moghadasi

, Torkfar

, Rahimezadeh

, Khademi

. The Effect of Eight Weeks of Sport on Physical Fitness and General Health of Male Employees. Armaghan Danesh. Journal of Medical Science. 2011;17(1). [In Persian].

10.

Helgerud

, Engen

LCH

, Wislqff

, Hoff

. Aerobic endurance training improves soccer performance. Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine. 2001.

11.

Ji-Long

, Bin-Ji , Li-Hua

, De-Long

. The Development of Track and Field Based on the Achievement of Athletic in Recent Years. IERI Procedia. 2012;2:270–5.

12.

Jed

, Leland

. Athletics and executive functioning: How athletic participation and sport type correlate with cognitive performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 2014;15(5):521–7.

13.

Gillberg

, Kecklund

, Akerstedt

. Relations between performance and subjective ratings of sleepiness during a night awake. Sleep. 1994;17(3):236–41.

14.

McArdle

, Katch

, Pechar

, Jacobson

, Ruck

. Reliability and interrelationships between maximal oxygen intake, physical work capacity and step-test scores in college women. Medicine & Science in Sports. 1972;4(4):182–6.

15.

Bar-On

. The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi): A Test of Emotional Intelligence. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems Inc. 1997.

16.

Samuei

. Standardization of BarOn emotional intelligence test. Tehran: Sina Research Institution on behavioral sciences. 2003.

17.

Walker

, Walker

, Monjaraz Fuentes

, Rector

. Rat psychomotor vigilance task with fast response times using a conditioned lick behavior. Behavioural Brain Research. 2011;216(1):229–37.

18.

Kay

, Rector

, Consolvo

, Greenstein

, Wobbrock

, Watson

, Kientz

. PVT- Touch: Adapting a Reaction Time Test for Touchscreen Devices. in Proceedings of Pervasive Health. 2013.

19.

Singh Bal

, Singh

. Emotional Intelligence in Basketball Players. A Predictor of Sport Performance. Education Practice & Innovation. 2014;1(2):2372–3092.

20.

Abdoolie-B , Malekshahie . The Relationship between Self-efficacy and Emotional Intelligence with Golbalyst Male Players in Premier League. Sport Psychology Studies. 2011;93–104.

21.

Costarelli

, Stamou

. Emotional Intelligence body image and Disordered eating attitudes incombat Sport Athletes. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness. 2009;7(2):104–11.

22.

Giorgos

, Paradisis . Reaction Time and Performance in the Short Sprints. New Studies in Athletics. 2013;2(1):95–103.

23.

Tqnnessen

, Haugen

, Shalfawi

SHAI

. Reaction Time Aspects of Elite Sprinters In Athletics World Championships. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2013;27(4):885–92.

24.

Pilianidis

, Kasabalis

, Mantzouranis

, Mavvidis

. Start Reaction Time and Sprinting Performance at the Sprint Events in the Olympic Games. Kinesiology. 2012;44(1):67–72.

25.

Davies

, Thompson

. Aerobic Performance of Female Marathon and Male Ultramarathon Athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 1999;41:233–45.

26.

Anjali

, Shete , Smita

, Bute , Deshmukh

. A Study of VO2 Max and Body Fat Percentage in Female Athletes. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2014;8(12):BC01–BC03.

27.

Gnacinski

, Ebersole

, Cornell

, Mims

, Zamzow

, Meyer

. Firefighters’ cardiovascular health and fitness: An observation of adaptations that occur during firefighter training academies. Work. 2016;54(1):43–50.

28.

Maughan

, Leiper

. Aerobic Capacity and Fractional Utilisation of Aerobic Capacity in Elite and Non-Elite Male and Female Marathon Runners. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 1983;52:80–7.

29.

Taskin

, Taskin

, Guven

. Relationship between balance and aerobic capacity in adolescent athletes. Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise. 2015;17(30):27–31.

30.

Legaz-Arrese

, Munguia-Izquierdo

, Nuviala Nuviala

, Serveto-Galindo

, Moliner Urdiales

, Reverter Masia

. Average VO2max as a function of running performances on different distances. Science & Sports. 2007;22(1):43–9.

31.

Gharbi

, Dardouri

, Haj-Sassi

, Chamari

, Souissi

. Aerobic and anaerobic determinants of repeated sprint ability in team sports athletes. Biology of Sport. 2015;32:207–212.