Ergonomics in fashion engineering and design

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Before the emergence of ready-to-wear (RTW) garments, production of apparels relied on ergonomics considerations through body measurements (anthropometry) of individual users. This is an indication of the inherent nature of ergonomics in apparel fabrication; however active mention of ergonomics related to fashion engineering and design before then was lacking.

OBJECTIVE:

This article seeks to emphasize the need for an organized framework of knowledge for ergonomics suited to fashion engineering and design education and research.

METHODS:

Relevant literature have been reviewed and three main knowledge components of ergonomics relevant to fashion engineering and design have been identified and classified based on standard classes of areas within the general field of ergonomics.

RESULTS:

Areas of ergonomics applications in fashion engineering and design under the headings of consumer product design, i.e. apparel design, workspace or office design, manufacturing process design and man-machine system, have been discussed.

CONCLUSION:

Comprehensive ergonomics education related to fashion engineering and design consist of the three main knowledge components: (1) the five aspects of ergonomics, (2) anthropometry and biomechanics and (3) the three domains of ergonomics.

Keywords

Biomechanics workplace design anthropometry garment design man-machine systems ergonomics fashion engineering and design

1 Introduction

A great number of varying, if not overlapping, definitions of ergonomics and human factors exist in the literature. Wojciech Bogumil Jastrzębowski, invented the word ergonomics in 1857 in a philosophical narrative, “based upon the truths drawn from the Science of Nature” [1]. Ergonomics has been described as a discipline grounded on scientific data [2], regarding human beings as the cardinal focus of its operations and, consequently, offers a variety of support which applies to universal design in product development.

In other literature it has also been described as the scientific discipline which is hinged on the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.

Ergonomics, which applies knowledge from scientific branches like anatomy, anthropology, physiology, psychology and engineering, can be said to have important contributions to the subject of fashion engineering and design [3]. These contributions are mainly related to clothing physiology, anthropometry, functional features and product evaluation. In the design of garments, properties such as colour, fabric, and shape choices of the person which is responsible for psychological comfort, are taken into account to provide comfort and functionality by using anthropometric measures for the patterns are the clear indicators of garment-ergonomy relationship.

Ready-to-wear (RTW) is a term used to describe mass-produced clothes which are based on pre-assigned sizes according to classified groups. This is the type of clothing which is sold at retail stores [4]. Before the emergence of RTW garments, production of apparels by dressmakers and craftsmen of the time relied on various sizing methods through body measurements of individual users. This is an indication of the inherent nature of ergonomics in apparel fabrication; however the term ergonomics gained popularity when there was a need for RTW apparels. Ergonomics applied to fashion design requires taking into consideration how the clothes we design fit the people that are using them both physically and psychologically in addition to how the workplace is suitably designed for the worker for optimum performance.

The importance of ergonomics in fashion engineering and design can thus not be overemphasized; however a framework of knowledge on the subject tends to be fragmented. Several studies relating to the relevance and application of ergonomics in fashion engineering and design have individual and fragmented focal points such as work and workplace design [5, 6], anthropometrics, sizing system [7] and the general application of ergonomic considerations in apparel design [8 –12]. This has a negative impact in delivering a coherent education of ergonomics in fashion engineering and design.

This study seeks to organize a framework of knowledge of ergonomics suited to the subject of fashion engineering and design education and research. The body of knowledge of ergonomics is vast and sometimes confusing especially to non-mainstream practitioners. Therefore, there is a need to harmonize these bodies of knowledge aimed at developing a framework for ergonomics related to fashion engineering and design.

2 Ergonomics components relevant to fashion engineering and design

We have identified and classified three main knowledge components of ergonomics relevant to fashion engineering and design based on standard classes of areas within the general field of ergonomics, as shown in Fig. 1 Within the discipline of ergonomics these components can be said to be interconnected. These three major components in our opinion represent the nucleus of an overwhelming knowledge required for the application of ergonomics in fashion engineering and design, be it in industry or education.

Fig. 1

Classification of ergonomics components relevant to fashion engineering and design.

These three components tend to intertwine when applied, for instance, component two, defined here as branches of ergonomics, essentially captures subject areas in one of the domains - physical ergonomics is concerned with the impact of anatomy, anthropometry, biomechanics, physiology, and the physical environment on physical activity. These are indispensable considerations in clothing design. In terms of the organizational domain of ergonomics, relevant topics include how to design work for ease and efficiency [13], e.g. work space design, tools, work design, impact of safety of work clothing design on workers’ comfort [14, 15]. For the cognitive domain, interconnections are e.g. done by way of Human apparel and textile machine interfaces [16] and ease of use of apparel manufacturing machinery [17]. Thus, the clothing manufacturing process and even the use of clothing must bring together knowledge from the fields of anatomy (physical/anthropometry) and motion (biomechanics), and through the product itself in order to satisfy the functional, economic and psychological fashion needs of the user [11]. A diligent consideration or application of components two and three as shown in Fig. 1 will thus satisfy or deliver for component one or vice versa.

2.1 Branches of ergonomics related to fashion engineering and design

This categorization is rather controversial as it is esentially captured under one of the three domains (physical) of ergonomics. However, this is done in this study to highlight the importance of the two fields related to the subject of fashion engineering and design. These two fields are independent, very broad and widely researched. They also occupy a distinct space on the subject of ergonomics in fashion engineering and design. Both anthropometrics and biomechanics are broad subjects and hence the need for the distinction. Considering the direct contact between clothing and the user, the knowledge about anthropometry biomechanics and ergonomics are of extreme importance for the development of models that are appropriate for the different needs of different segments of clothing consumers [11].

2.1.1 Anthropometrics

The term anthropometry emanated from an amalgamation of two Greek words: anthrop, which means human and metricos, which means measurement [18]. The term refers to the scientific measurement and gathering of data about human physical features such as body dimensions (Fig. 2), body volumes, masses of body segments, center of gravity, and body’s inertial properties.

Fig. 2

Some anthropometric measurements.

Anthropometry has been drected at providing the accurate body dimensions needed to provide a proper fit of a product to the end user. It assists designers to comprehend and appreciate the disparities that exists in human body dimensions, proportions and shape [19]. In the not so distant past, several countries and organizations have been involved in conducting anthropometric studies of their populations [4]. Data sets from these studies are now available to designers [20]. Clothing is designed on the basis of anthropometric requirements, produced using two-dimensional textiles, and then joined in a 3D shape [21].

Several studies and surveys have been conducted to propose clothing sizing systems [22, 23]. National standards for major economies such as China, Japan, US and Europe [20] have been established based on chest-waist (men) or bust-to-hip (females) drop values [24]. The drop refers to the difference between a man’s chest and waist measurements or jacket and pant size (Fig. 2). The ISO, US, and European garment sizing system is based on chest-waist drop value whilst that of Germany is based on height and hip proportion [24]. With the help of these standardized systems consumers can find garments that suit their body dimensions.

2.1.2 Biomechanics

Biomechanics describe the science of movement of a living body, including the way muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments complement each other to produce movement. Biomechanics constitute part of the broader field of kinesiology, with a special focuse on movement mechanics. It is both a basic and applied science, covering research and practical application of its outcomes.

Clothing biomechanical engineering is described as the application of a systematic and quantitative mode of designing and engineering apparel products to satisfy the biomechanical requirements of the human body and to preserve the right pressure and distribution of stress on the human skin in addition to the tissues for the optimum performance, health and comfort of the wearer [25].

Biomechanical engineering in clothing studies the interaction between clothing pressure imposed on the human body and the extensibility of clothing in dynamic conditions [26]. This can then be used for guiding the design of garment size for pressure comfort in tight-fit garments. The static and dynamic states of the human body as shown in Fig. 3 directly determine the shape and construction considerations of clothes [27]. Various objective methods have been developed for evaluating garment fit. These include the fitting index which is based on measuring the space between the body and apparel, the symmetrised dot pattern technique, which makes use of the measurement of the changes of the dot pattern, and imaging technology through capturing and analysing garment images and through wearer trials [28].

Fig. 3

Some mechanics of the human body.

Based on the degree of space allowance between the body and the garment during the body movement, garments can be grouped into three main types namely foundation garments (e.g. girdles and compression garments), perfect fitting garments (e.g. suits and socks), and loose garments (e.g. loose dresses and flared skirts) [29]. Garment ease should accord comfort and mobility; both too much or too little ease can result in a garment that is uncomfortable and restrictive to movement [30]. Garments biomechanical functional performance is governed by the mechanical interplays between clothes and the human body during wear in static and/or dynamic situations. Biomechanics is applicable in the design of sports equipment, clothing (eg. compression garments), shoes, and the fields and facilities where sports are played [31]. Sports shoes can be designed for the best performance athletes based on biomechanics [32]. Other subjects of scientific investigating and applications are the biomechanics of breast health and sports bra design [33].

2.2 Domains of ergonomics related to fashion engineering and design

The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) categorises ergonomics into three broad domains namely physical ergonomics, organizational ergono-mics and cognitive ergonomics. Physical ergonomics is considered as one of the domains of specialization within the field of ergonomics, besides organizational ergonomics and cognitive ergonomics.

Though the primary focus may be on any one of these domains, interventions are based on all three aspects and their interactions. Physical ergonomics entails human anatomy, anthropometry, physiology and bio-mechanic characteristics as they pertain to physical activity.

Pertinent subject areas e.g. include materials handling, postures while working, repetitious motions, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), workspace arangement, safety in the workplace, as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Relevant topics in physical ergonomics.

Organizational ergonomics is also focused on optimizing socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. Pertinent topics include, design of work, working schedule design, teamwork, participatory design, Fatigue risk management in the workplace, cooperative work, new work paradigms, science of sleep, working posture and working area analysis, work space computation and influencing factors, circadian rhythms, and fatigue, as shown in Fig. 5 The goal of organizational ergonomics is the attainment of a fully harmonized work system that ensures employee job satisfaction and commitment.

Fig. 5

Relevant topics in organizational ergonomics.

Cognitive ergonomics entails mental processes, such as memory, perception, reasoning, and motor response, as they impact interactions amongst humans and other elements of a system. Relevant subject areas include mental workload, decision-making, as shown in Fig. 6. With regards to fashion engineering and design, it can be applied to studies that emphasize on how appropriate the utilzation of a product agrees with the cognitive capabilities of users. It benefits from knowledge of human perception, mental processing, and memory. Instead of being a design discipline, it serves as a source of knowledge for designers and considered as guidelines for guaranteeing good usability of products.

Fig. 6

Relevant topics in cognitive ergonomics.

2.3 Aspects of ergonomics related to fashion engineering and design

The aspects of ergonomics are composed of safety, comfort, ease of use, productivity/performance and aesthetics. These five aspects are very important to the fashion design and engineering in the sense that products or systems should be designed based on these ergonomic principles.

2.3.1 Safety in clothing

Safety is usually required for several categories of clothing including children’s wear, work wear, clothing for people with special needs, and adults. Apparel consumers expect products to be safe when in use. Complying with product safety regulations, also help reduce health risks to workers who produce the products. Flammability is a basic safety requirement for children’s sleepwear. US Federal regulations requires that sleepwear for children nine months or above need to be flame-resistant or snug-fitting [34].

2.3.2 Comfort in clothing

Clothing consumers prefer that garments not only look good but also feel good. Personal clothing comfort requirement is a very complicated characteristic. Comfort consist of a mumber of conditions such as thermal, non-thermal, physiological, and wear conditions. Comfort manates from a cluster of visual, thermal, and tactile sensations, the psychological status of wearer, body-clothing interactions, and ambient environments [35]. Rarely does only one factor actually fully dominate an individual’s feel of comfort. Even within the clothing system a number of factors such as fit, type of textile material, and design can affect the individual’s perception of comfort.

2.3.3 Ease in clothing and ease of use

The word ease describe the ability to actuate carefully without force or exertion. Application of this term is in two dimensions, the first being design ease and the other being ease of clothing use. In designing, ease describe that extra measurement factored into a sewing pattern in addition to the body measurement so as to make sure there is enough comfort and ability to move freely in the garment [36]. Both too much or too little ease can result in a garment that is uncomfortable and restrictive to movement [37]. Ease of care also describe the ease with which the garment is to washable, able to dry, store, and repair [38]. Design ease also describe the extra measurement incorpoated together with the wearing ease to accommodate the extra design/style elements such as gathers, pleats, tucks, and ruching. Depending on the amount of ease required, the garment can be sewn to be either very tight fitting, fitting, semi-fitting, loose or very loose. The second dimension also is the design of clothing to provide ample ease of use clothes for physical and intellectual impaired [39]. E.g. underwear which fastens at the crotch can help make toileting easier for infants.

2.3.4 Productivity in clothing

Clothing-impacted productivity can be addressed from the view point of technical requirements for personal protective clothing personal protective clothing (PPC), and adherence to physical ergonomic considerations in the design of work clothes. The object of PPC use is to aid workers perform in hazardous environments, however PPC can have a negative effect on worker performance [40]. Clothing-related worker productivity is an important ergonomics issue directed at minimizing the impact of reduced human performance and productivity that result from the use of work clothing or uniform. Clothing induced reduced productivity (physical ergonomics) are caused by several factors including the weight and bulk of the clothing, visual and tactile reductions, and heat stress that typically accompanies performance clothing used in ambient high temperature environments. A research report concluded that thermal discomfort caused by increased air temperature had an adverse effect on employee performance [41].

2.3.5 Aesthetics in clothing

While ergonomics and human factors research have contributed immensely to the safety, productivity, ease-of-use, and comfort of human-machine-environment systems, largely ignored as a topic of systematic scientific research in human factors and ergonomics is aesthetics [42]. For clothing quality to meet the demands and expectations of customers, it may be based in part on the aesthetic appearance and the quality of the material used [43]. Aesthetics of dress portays how people choose to appear, and the way they want to look to themselves and others within a particular context. For something to be aesthetically pleasing to an individual, it has to be pleasurable to be liked. On the contrary, should it be aesthetically displeasing, it meant the individual would not find it pleasurable. Aesthetics involves all of ones senses, i.e. vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell, and your emotions.

3 Areas of ergonomics applications in fashion engineering and design

Just like many other areas, fashion engineering and design require ergonomics. The areas include but are not limited to apparel design (consumer product design), office workplace design, manufacturing process design and man-machine systems.

3.1 Consumer product design –Apparel design

The design of clothing based on ergonomics provides a scientific and systematic guidance in line with scientific and test data, and provides design concepts that satisfy an array of needs for most segment of society. Apparel design therefore must be considered in the light of the three components identified in Fig. 1.

Ergonomic consideration that should be ahered to when designing garments for example, apparels to for seated posture should make provision for: (1) the build up of trouser body rise at the back and reduction at the front, (2) the aggregation of excess fabric in the abdominal area and exposure of the back area, (3) differences in leg length at varied postures, and (4) presence of thick and hard seams in areas subjected to high pressure such as back and buttock areas [14].

In terms of other aspects such as thermal ergonomic design, the ultimate goal of clothing is to provide effective thermal protection for the human body against various heat/cold environments and create a thermally comfortable portable microclimate for wearers [44]. Heat and moisture transport behaviors of textile materials are the predominant factors that determine the thermal functional performance of apparel products in various wearing conditions. Thus the use of appropriate textile materials are necessary to produce ergonomic compliant garments. Examples include biomechanical engineering of aerobic sportswear [45]. High-fit gloves based on 3D hand scan data [46], protective clothing for earthquake disaster search and rescue team members [47], and protective clothing design [48].

3.2 Office or workplace design

The factors that threaten the health of garment industry workers include but are not limited to weight lifting and carting activities, defective lighting, fire, and movements resulting in recurrent accidents [3]. The incidence and severity of these elements can be alleviated by carrying out simple arrangements and by appropriately designing the workplace environment. Workstations that are poorly designed lead to cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs), such as musculoskeletal disorders of the neck, shoulders and upper limbs, collectively known as repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) [49].

There is the need for work locations to be set up based on human features, job requirements, and job design characteristics. Should the ergonomic needs of individuals be satisfied at the workplace, the chance of higher productivity and ultimately better employee’s health can be ensured. Because it is not possible to re-design the human being, it behoves on practioners to rather design machinery and other means of production so employees can easily use them.

Sewing, spreading, cutting and cutting tables can be made to ensure that physiological characteristics of the employee suits the work being performed. Operators of sewing machines in garment industries encounter a considerable elevated risk of muscle pain and injury compared to workers in other jobs [50]. Frequency of recurrent neck and shoulder injuries also tend to increase with years of employment for this category of workers.

Tasks or workstations can usually be redesigned to minmize the number of repetitious motions that must be carried out during work. Examples include the use of electronic screwdriver or tools with a ratchet device to cut down on the number of arm twisting motions. Also to avert ergonomic injuries, employees should be encouraged to alternate tasks or resort to frequent, short breaks so as to stretch and relax their muscles.

3.3 Manufacturing process design

Apparel manufacturing involves several processes, such as product design and fabric selection (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7

Typical apparel manufacturing process.

The provision of a more comfortable working posture for short and tall employees is possible by deploying both height adjustable seats and height adjustable tables. For example, workers and warehouse employees who are responsible for moving, stacking and loading the fabric to the top counters, are exposed to similar ergonomic hazards. As a result, well-designed work areas should be guaranteed such that standing and sitting postures should be regularly changed. A study assessing ergonomics intervention in an apparel factory reported of significant reductions in proportion of sewing operator-related defective products by 56% and 52% in the two production lines studied respectively [51].

The use of chemicals are inevitable in garment manufacturing. Enzymes, solvents, dyes, and other chemicals used are used to effect different fabric finishes and lasting effects, and therefore need to be properly handled. A study conducted by Lu [52] on occupational hazards and illnesses among Filipino women workers in export processing zones reported hazards such as heat (66.6%), overwork (66.6%), poor ventilation (54.8%) and chemical exposure (50.8%). Adequate ventilation, respiratory protection, and the use of other PPEs are important in protecting workers during chemical processing.

Integral to garment production activities is the need for close viewing of the garment, and as such protection of the eye is critical. Eye injuries among garment workers can be avoided by using proper eye shields while operating high-speed sewing machines or safety glasses where appropriate [53]. Also, ample task lighting at individual workstations can avert incidences of eye strain. Excessive reaches during fabric cutting can be ameliorated by using tappropriate table height and the worker should be able to access the cutting blade without having to fully extend the arms and lean forward. The use of semi-automated trolleys in cutting department for fabric transportation have been reported to provide considerable reduction in stress and strain levels in body parts of workers [54].

3.4 Man-machine systems and computer integrated manufacturing

Man-machine system describe a system consisting of a human operator or group of operators and a machine. In the fashion industry, humans interact with an array of machines to accomplish certain goals at the workplace. In some ways man-machine systems are fundamental to ergonomic analysis [55]. Device controls relay energy or signals from the worker to a piece of machinery. Also the provision of visual information to the worker about the status of the machinery are effected by the combination of controls and displays on a panel or console [56] and they all constitue what is refered to as human or man-machine system. Information relating to the status of an equipment is rendered by displays. These displays may interact with the employee’s visual sense, e.g. via lights, counters, scales, flat panels, and cathode-ray tubes, to the auditory sense, e.g. via horns, bells, recorded voice messages, and electronically-generated sounds, or to the sense of touch through shaped controls [56].

Global competition in the textile/apparel industry require the use of the most advanced concepts and methods, including computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) [57]. CIM describes the computerized handling of integrated business processes amongst all different functions in an enterprise [58]. CIM is a fusion various technologies such as computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) to deliver an error-free manufacturing process resulting in a reduction in manual labor and automation of repetitive tasks. Computer-aided design systems for garment industry applications have rapidly been developed in recent years and have become an integral part of clothing design processes [59]. CAD systems in the garment industry are useful for pattern generation, sketch formation, pattern and texture simulation and design modification, garment modelling and visualization [60 –62]. Notable systems in use currently include TUKAcad (Tukatech, USA), which helps to create nicely engineered patterns, calculate and plan accurate fabric requirements utilizing fashion technology. Lectra (France) is used mostly for pattern making, grading and designing. Vision Fashion Studio (Gerber Technology, USA) is a design studio that assists designers in creating patterns speedily from existing designs. TEX-DESIGN (Koppermann, Germany) aids in presentation of draft designs and extensive collection [63]. A sewability integrated environment has been devised by Stylios et al. [64] which can automatically predict material problems and advise correction of properties prior to manufacture.

Industrial IoT or Industry 4.0 both describe emerging paradigms for seamless interactions between human and machines [65]. The fourth industrial revolution thus has heralded applications such as the intelligent apparel recommend expert systems [66], automatic fabric cutting [67] and sewing machines [68]. There also some systems [69] that incorporate a sketching interface to provide design flexibility and freedom.

4 Conclusion

It is the opinion of the authors that the ergonomics education that consists of the three main identified components is sufficient to provide the needed comprehensive knowledge on the subject of ergonomics in fashion engineering and design. Ergonomics in clothing is a kind of applied science that improves the whole function of clothing. It is based on the characteristics of the human body form and motor function and fully considers the harmony and comfort of human body and clothing. Ergonomics in fashion engineering and design brings together knowledge in clothing materialogy, textile science, human psychology, human anatomy, environmental hygiene, anthropometry, fashion design, medical science and many other disciplines.

Future studies will examine in more detail the ergonomics considerations for human machine interfaces and computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) systems in the apparel industry. Other subject areas worthy of attention include methods of mobility in clothing analysis and applications.

Conflict of interest

None to report

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Ergonomics in fashion engineering and design – Pertinent issues