Types of demands and well-being in correctional officers: The protective role of psychological capital

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Correctional officers’ personal resources, such as psychological capital (PsyCap), may help them better manage their work environment in the penitentiary; however, there is limited research on the relationship between indicators of well-being and types of demands in this cohort and whether this relationship depends on PsyCap.

OBJECTIVE:

The aim of this study was to examine three types of demands (job, personal, and group) and the effect of each on three indicators of low well-being: burnout, physical and mental health complaints. We also tested the potential moderating role of PsyCap in the relationship between the three types of demands and indicators of well-being.

METHODS:

The potential moderating role of personal resources (PsyCap) between demands and well-being was tested via hierarchical multiple regression on a sample of 350 correctional officers.

RESULTS:

Results show that psychological capital attenuates the effect of personal distress and negative team relationships on all three indicators of low well-being. Psychological capital also moderates the relation between work-family conflict and mental health complaints. However, it does not act as a moderator between work-family conflict and burnout or physical health complaints.

CONCLUSIONS:

The findings are of value because they emphasize the importance of psychological capital, as a personal and malleable resource, for the occupational health of correctional officers.

Keywords

Correctional officers demands psychological capital personal resources well-being

1 Introduction

A correctional officer’ is a unique profession that involves high responsibilities and specific skill sets, including teamwork, increased attention, and coping with various challenges. Their main goal is to maintain safety in the penitentiary environment, but they often face different stressful situations, some of which put their lives in danger [1]. Studies have shown that this dangerous environment can negatively affect their health, creating family problems and further affecting the prison environment’s safety [2 –4]. Correctional officers’ personal resources could represent an essential psychological buffer in their attempts to manage these stressful situations related to the penitentiary environment. Personal resources are defined “as a positive and flexible self-evaluations referring to the individuals’ perceptions of their abilities to control and successfully influence their environment” [5]. Thus, individuals with high levels of self-efficacy and optimism can handle unforeseen events and believe that good things will happen to them [6]. Thus, it is essential to build personal resources, such as PsyCap, to help employees cope with job demands. PsyCap is a novel, higher-order, multidimensional concept representing combinations between its four constituent elements: hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism [7].

Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory postulates that extreme and sustained job demands initiate a health-impairment process, while job resources are the starting elements of a motivational process [6]. Lack of job resources and a high level of job demands lead to strain and health impairment, such as stress and impaired well-being [8]. Job demands are “aspects of the job that require sustained physical and/or psychological (cognitive and emotional) effort and are, therefore, associated with certain physiological and/or psychological costs” [9].

In contrast, based on the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [10], personal resources are expected to buffer the undesirable impact of job demands on strain [6]. According to COR, people with resources (i.e., personal resources) are less likely to experience resource loss. Therefore, building personal resources, especially PsyCap, is crucial in helping employees better cope in the face of job demands. Most research on this topic has shown that personal resources, such as self-efficacy, are positively related to work engagement [11]. However, research on PsyCap, as a personal resource, and indicators of ill-being, are scarce. For example, research on PsyCap and burnout was conducted mainly with samples of nurses, social workers, and IT employees. These studies show a negative relationship between PsyCap and burnout [12, 13] and between PsyCap and anxiety [14].

To better understand the context of this research, we will briefly describe the penitentiary system in Romania. National Administration of Penitentiaries from Romania (NAP) is the public service that contributes to the defense of public order and national security by ensuring security, escort, supervision, and application of the detention regime; it has a particular social role, determined by its punitive-educational functions and social reintegration of citizens deprived of their liberty. In 2019 the Romanian penitentiary system counted 12,502 employees. The system is formed by an operative sector, an education and psychological assistance sector, a medical sector, and other sectors. Unfortunately, there is no available information regarding the stress levels or well-being of these employees.

A correctional officer’s job imposes several demands specific to the job and work environment; these job demands include high workload, lack of personal safety, low autonomy, lack of social support from managers, and work-family conflict [15, 16]. In addition to job demands, correctional officers are also exposed to personal and group demands. In our study, we examined three types of demands associated with the activity of correctional officers: work-family conflict (as job demand), personal distress (as personal demand), and negative team relationships (as group-specific demand). These demands are important since they represent stressful factors in the work environment, the person’s psychological state, or at the team level and have not been fully examined in past research.

Although the effects of job demands on employee health have been studied in various organizational contexts [2, 6], little is known about how buffering effects can appear in the relationship between job demands and health outcomes among correctional officers. We investigate the moderating role played by PsyCap in the relationship between different types of stressors (job demand, personal demand, and group demand) and well-being in a sample of Romanian correctional officers.

Based on JD-R theory, the conflict between work and family represents the negative impact of work on the family or personal life. An imbalance between workplace demands and family life relates to job burnout experienced by correctional officers [17]. Thus, correctional work raises concerns for one’s physical safety, resulting in the officers’ experience of tensions affecting her/his private life domain [18]. This work-family conflict experienced by correctional officers has been studied in relation to job satisfaction but not to health. Personal demands are personal constraints, partially influenced by behavior, and are associated with physical and psychological costs. Psychological distress as a personal demand has its’ sources in empathy and represents an emotional state characterized by symptoms of anxiety experienced by one person in response to another person’s stress [19]. Teamwork-specific demands, like disagreements between team members, are frequent in correctional officers’ activity. Our study provides more information regarding the effects of these specific demands on correctional officers’ well-being and the role of PsyCap in this context. As outcomes, we focus on three indicators of poor well-being: burnout, physical and mental health complaints.

Burnout is defined as “a psychological syndrome involving chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors that individuals experience at work and their subsequent responses to their tasks, organizations, co-workers, clients, and themselves” [20]. In this study, as one part of well-being, we measured core burnout with its two components: emotional exhaustion and cynicism [21]. Emotional exhaustion indicates feelings of being depleted and down, resulting from overtaxing work. Depersonalization or cynicism appears when individuals mentally distance themselves from their work by gradually developing dehumanized perceptions of co-workers, tasks, or clients [22]. Exhaustion and cynicism usually constitute burnout’s core dimensions [23, 24]. As other well-being indicators, we chose physical and psychological health complaints related to job insecurity, work-family conflict, and low-quality working relationships [12 , 25].

This study aims to examine the effects of three types of demands (job, personal, and group) on each of these indicators of low well-being. Beyond these, we highlight the potential moderating role of PsyCap in the relationship between new types of demands and well-being. This study appears to be the first to examine whether the association between demands and well-being among correctional officers varies by PsyCap.

Below, we will detail the relations between the three types of demands, the three negative indicators of well-being, and the potential moderating role of PsyCap, as a personal resource, in these relations. We also present six hypotheses that are connected to these relations.

1.1 Work-family conflict and well-being

Because of the nature of the correctional officer’s profession, researchers have examined how their work environment affects family life. They have found links to more stress and dissatisfaction at work [18] and behavior-based conflict due to their work roles [26]. Work-family conflict (WFC) is a job demand, defined as a process in which the functional ability of an employee in one domain, such as the home environment, “is generated by load reactions” that are built up in another domain, such as the work environment [27]. WFC has been positively linked to ill health, including adverse physical and mental health [28, 29], higher levels of fatigue and health complaints [30], burnout, and psychological strain [31], as well as occupational exposures, such as several hours, worked and irregular work [30].

WFC’s prevalence has increased in different organizations over time and is among the most important occupational health concerns among employees [32]. Unfortunately, this issue has not been well investigated in correctional officers. However, relevant studies have been performed at single institutions in the USA, and original research has been conducted in the UK [26, 33].

Since the relation between WFC and well-being has not yet been tested among correctional officers, the first hypothesis is:

H1: Work-family conflict will be positively related to well-being outcomes: (a) burnout, (b) mental health complaints, and (c) physical health complaints.

1.2 Personal distress and well-being

The JD-R model was recently extended by integrating personal resources (e.g., optimism, self-efficacy) and also personal demands (e.g., workaholism) alongside job demands and resources [6]. In the context of JD-R theory, personal demands have been defined as “the requirements that individuals set for their performance and behavior that force them to invest effort in their work and are therefore associated with physical and psychological costs” [34]. Rooted in empathy, personal distress is a personal demand that manifests through feelings of anxiety experienced in response to another persons’ negative experience [35]. Therefore, it can constitute an antecedent of well-being (burnout, mental and physical health complaints) among correctional officers.

Personal demands are a novel type of demands in JD-R theory that require more in-depth research in association with well-being and performance [6 , 36]. Only recently have researchers become interested in the concept of personal demands [8]. Thus, personal demands, such as workaholism [37], high-performance expectations [34], or anxious attachment style [36], were found to play an essential role in affecting employees’ well-being, predicting work outcomes like burnout, work disability, malfunctioning, malpractice, unprofessional behavior, and career shifts [37, 38].

Personal distress, as personal demand, has adverse effects on well-being. Researches show that personal distress significantly predicts burnout [39], even over a three-year time lag [40]. It has also been linked to compassion fatigue, satisfaction [41], and increased anger reactions [42]. Other empirical studies have shown associations of personal distress with a range of problems in social and psychological functioning, such as shame [43], rumination [44], neuroticism [45], and dishonest clinical behaviors [46]. Therefore, in the context of JD-R theory, we consider personal distress as a personal demand. In the case of correctional officers, personal distress is a critical issue. Often, they are put in extreme, intense situations, such as threats, suicide attempts of detainees, or other various conflicts. In such cases, they must remain calm, not be afraid, and not lose control of their temper. To our knowledge, the relationship between personal distress and well-being has never been systematically approached concerning correctional officers. Thus, based on the research presented above and considering the characteristics of this specific profession, we expect to find a positive association between personal distress and three negative well-being indicators.

H2: Personal distress will be positively related to well-being outcomes: a) burnout, b) mental health complaints, and c) physical health complaints.

1.3 Negative team relationships and well-being

Team conflict is defined as disagreements between team members about the content of a task (task conflict) or interpersonal values (relationship conflict) [47]. In the context of JD-R theory, we consider negative team relationships as a group demand, which are defined as interpersonal incompatibilities and frictions among the team members resulting in tension, annoyance, and animosity [48]. Most organizations are interested in identifying the effects of demands and the role of personal resources in determining the well-being of whole teams or departments [6].

We investigate team relationships because correctional officers’ work also depends on their colleagues not only to fulfill professional objectives, but also to contribute to safe work environments and good teamwork. This is consistent with previous research, which has shown that a higher propensity to trust others in collaborative environments was associated with lower levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and higher levels of cooperative behavior [49, 50]. Conversely, studies show that low-quality working relationships and co-worker aggression are associated with reduced health and well-being, depression, anxiety, social dysfunction, mental health status, hostile work attitudes, worse physical symptoms, and burnout [10 , 52]. Therefore, we expect that working in teams where quarrels, tensions, or misunderstandings exist (e.g., high group demands) will be positively related to higher burnout and mental and physical health complaints. Our third hypothesis is:

H3: Negative team relationships will be positively associated with well-being outcomes: a) burnout, b) mental health complaints, and c) physical health complaints.

1.4 Psychological capital as a moderator

Psychological Capital (PsyCap) is defined as “an individual’s positive psychological state of development characterized by 1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; 2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; 3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) to succeed; and 4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success” [53].

Based on previous recommendations [7], we used PsyCap as a core construct. Previous research revealed that PsyCap was positively related to work performance, job satisfaction, and level of well-being [7, 54] and was negatively associated with depression, anxiety, burnout, and pressure [54 –57]. As a personal resource, the role of PsyCap has also been demonstrated by previous research [7 , 57–59], although studies of its potential moderating effects among correctional officers are scarce. Instead, other studies of potential buffering effects involved different personal resources, such as learning processes [60] or recovery experiences [61].

COR theory provides support for the potential moderating role of personal resources in the relation between undesirable or stressful work/personal characteristics and negative outcomes [10]. This theory suggests that employees need to invest their resources to prevent adverse outcomes such as burnout. As PsyCap increases, employees might develop a remarkable ability to cope with increased job demands. Higher job demands are associated with increased levels of stress.

Based on the JD-R and COR theories, we included PsyCap as a potential moderator related to demands and well-being in the health impairment process. Employees with high PsyCap reported lower levels of cynicism (depersonalization), higher levels of job satisfaction [62], and were less likely to present symptoms of poor mental health [63]. This, in turn, directly affects well-being and engagement outcomes [64]. Moreover, PsyCap can be seen as a personal resource that aids access to additional job resources [65]. The theoretical model which will be tested is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Hypothetical model.

Summarizing, our study focuses on personal distress as a personal demand, negative team relationships as a group demand, and WFC as a job demand. Based on the reviewed literature, we developed the following three hypotheses:

H4: PsyCap will be moderated the relationship between work-family conflict and well-being outcomes a) burnout, b) mental health complaints, and c) physical health complaints.

H5: PsyCap will be moderated the relationship between personal distress and well-being outcomes a) burnout, b) mental health complaints, and c) physical health complaints.

H6: PsyCap will be moderated the relationship between negative team relationships and well-being outcomes a) burnout, b) mental health complaints, and c) physical health complaints.

2 Methods

2.1 Participants and procedure

The sample consisted of correctional officers working in units subordinated to the National Administration of Penitentiaries from Romania (NAP) and was collected based on a non-probabilistic sampling procedure. They participated voluntarily in the study, being assured of anonymity. The self-report questionnaire was distributed to 450 correctional officers, but only 360 (80.0%) could be analyzed. Respondents were aged between 22 and 56 years (M = 38.02, SD = 7.89), and 86.9% were men. Participants in the study have an average tenure of 13.22 years. One hundred and ninety-six respondents (54.4%) had a higher educational background beyond high school. A large proportion of the sample was married (70.0%), had at least one child (70.5%), and worked in shifts (65.5%).

2.2 Instruments

Work-family conflict was measured with the 8-item Negative Work-Home Interaction (NWFI) scale from the SWING questionnaire [27]; answers were rated on a scale from 0 (never) to 3 (always). An example item for this scale is: “You find it difficult to fulfill your domestic obligations because you are constantly thinking about your work?”. Cronbach’s alpha value of the negative work-family interaction scale was 0.87.

Personal distress was measured with a 7-item scale from the Interpersonal Relativity Index [35]; answers were rated on a scale from 1 (does not describe me very well) to 5 (describes me very well). An example of an item is: “In emergency situations, I feel apprehensive and ill-at-ease.”. Cronbach’s alpha value of the negative personal distress scale was adequate (α= 0.79).

Negative team relationships were measured with the 3-item Relationship Conflicts [66]; answers were rated on a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very much). An example of an item is: “In my work team there were quarrels between colleagues.”. Cronbach’s alpha value of the negative team relationships scale was adequate (α= 0.86).

Psychological capital was measured with the 24-item PsyCap Questionnaire [53]. This questionnaire has four subscales, each with six items: hope (“I can think of many ways to reach my current work goals.”), self-efficacy (“I feel confident analyzing a long-term problem to find a solution.”), resilience (“I usually take stressful things at work in stride.”), and optimism (“When things are uncertain to me at work I usually expect the best.”). All items were scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). The PsyCap questionnaire has previously been validated psychometrically in Romania [67]. Cronbach’s alpha value of the PsyCap scale was adequate (α= 0.87).

Burnout was assessed with two scales of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey [68]: emotional exhaustion (5 items; “I feel emotionally drained from my work.”) and cynicism (4 items; “I have become more cynical about whether my work contributes anything.”). All items were scored on a 7-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always). Cronbach’s alpha value of the burnout scale was 0.84.

Physical health complaints were assessed by four items developed by Ware [69] as part of the SF 36 Health Survey. Item examples for physical health complaints are: “I seem to get sick more easily than others.”, “I expect that my health will get worse in the near future.”. Each item was assessed on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = totally disagree to 5 = totally agree). Items 2 and 4 were reverse-scored, and a high score signified poor physical health. Previous studies have provided evidence of this scale’s psychometric characteristics [70 –72]. Cronbach’s alpha value of the physical health complaints scale was 0.75.

Mental health complaints were assessed with the 5-item scale developed by Berwick and colleagues [73]. A sample item is “During the past month, how much of the time have you felt calm and peaceful?”. Items are rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always). Cronbach’s alpha value of the mental health complaints scale was 0.82.

To better understand the characteristics of the sample, demographic variables such as age, gender, and marital status were also collected. To capture the independent effect of predictor and dependent variables, the effects of these variables were kept under control.

2.3 Statistical approach

The data were analyzed using the lavaan package [74] in R software [75]. First, we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test two measurement models: M1–a model with seven factors (each factor for each variable); M2–a single-factor model. Model fit was evaluated using maximum likelihood estimation; we calculated three absolute fit indices (the chi-square statistic; RMSEA –the root mean square error of approximation, and SRMR –the standardized root mean square residual) and two relative fit indices (CFI –Comparative fit index; and TLI –Tucker-Lewis index). The cut-off values for the fit indices that indicate acceptable fit are: CFI and TLI > 0.90; RMSEA and SRMR < 0.08 [76].

Second, after mean-centering all the independent variables, we tested nine separate regression models. The potential moderating role of personal resources (PsyCap) between demands (job, personal, group) and well-being (burnout, physical and mental health complaints) of correctional officers was tested via hierarchical multiple regressions [77]. In the fourth hypothesis (H4), we tested the moderating role of PsyCap, as a personal resource, on the relationship between WFC (as job demand) and well-being. The moderating role of PsyCap on the relationship between personal distress (as a personal demand) and well-being was tested in the fifth hypothesis (H5), and we also tested the moderating role of PsyCap on the relationship between negative team relationships (as group demand) and well-being in hypothesis six (H6). Although there are multiple comparisons for three outcomes, the hierarchical regression equations are simple and involve testing a model with an interaction term. In this case, Bonferroni correction is not required [78].

3 Results

Means, standard deviations, and correlations for the study’s variables are shown in Table 1. The data show a positive correlation between WFC and burnout (r = 0.67, p < 0.01), mental health complaints (r = 0.50, p < 0.01), and physical health complaints (r = 0.41, p < 0.01). We also found positive correlations between personal distress and burnout (r = 0.30, p < 0.01), mental health complaints (r = 0.30, p < 0.01), and physical health complaints (r = 0.22, p < 0.01). Lastly, positive correlations were found between negative team relationships and burnout (r = 0.29, p < 0.01), mental health complaints (r = 0.24, p < 0.01), and physical health complaints (r = 0.22, p < 0.01). Participants’ gender and marital status did not correlate with any of the three outcomes. We found only a positive correlation between participants’ age and mental health complaints (r = 0.11, p < 0.05) and physical health complaints (r = 0.16, p < 0.01).

Table 1
Means, standard deviations and correlation coefficients between variables (N = 360)

Variable M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

1. PsyCap 5.18 0.81 (0.87)

2. Personal distress 4.52 4.95 –0.31^ (0.79)

3. Negative team relationships 5.86 1.99 –0.22^ 0.18^ (0.86)

4. Work-family conflict 3.52 3.41 –0.30^ 0.33^ 0.29^ (0.87)

5. Mental health complaints 8.22 3.57 –0.24^ 0.30^ 0.24^ 0.50^ (0.82)

6. Physical health complaints 6.49 2.77 –0.29^ 0.22^ 0.22^ 0.41^ 0.51^ (0.75)

7. Burnout 7.09 7.72 –0.36^ 0.30^ 0.29^ 0.67^ 0.46^ 0.31^ (0.84)

8. Gender – – 0.05 0.07 0.006 0.004 0.03 0.01 –0.04 (–)

9. Age 38.02 7.89 –0.02 0.23^ 0.01 0.22^** 0.11^* 0.16^** 0.03 –0.01 (–)

10. Marital status – – 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.12^* 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.40^** (–)

Variable	M	SD	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.	9.	10.
1. PsyCap	5.18	0.81	(0.87)
2. Personal distress	4.52	4.95	–0.31^**	(0.79)
3. Negative team relationships	5.86	1.99	–0.22^**	0.18^**	(0.86)
4. Work-family conflict	3.52	3.41	–0.30^**	0.33^**	0.29^**	(0.87)
5. Mental health complaints	8.22	3.57	–0.24^**	0.30^**	0.24^**	0.50^**	(0.82)
6. Physical health complaints	6.49	2.77	–0.29^**	0.22^**	0.22^**	0.41^**	0.51^**	(0.75)
7. Burnout	7.09	7.72	–0.36^**	0.30^**	0.29^**	0.67^**	0.46^**	0.31^**	(0.84)
8. Gender	–	–	0.05	0.07	0.006	0.004	0.03	0.01	–0.04	(–)
9. Age	38.02	7.89	–0.02	0.23^**	0.01	0.22^**	0.11^*	0.16^**	0.03	–0.01	(–)
10. Marital status	–	–	0.06	0.07	0.05	0.12^*	0.07	0.05	0.05	0.08	0.40^**	(–)

Notes: ^*p < 0.05; ^**p < 0.01. Internal consistency alphas are displayed in the diagonal.

Before testing the hypotheses, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). To test the common method bias, we used single-factor model. The CFA revealed the first seven-factor model (M1) had a good fit index compared with the single-factor model (M2) [79], which had a poor fit index. The results show that the seven-factor model (M1: χ² (304) = 653.19, p < 0.001, TLI = 0.90; CFI = 0.92; RMSEA = 0.05, 95% CI [0.05, 0.06], SRMR = 0.05) was superior to the Harman’s single-factor model (M2: χ² (14) = 67.07, p < 0.001, TLI = 0.87; CFI = 0.91; RMSEA = 0.10, 95% CI [0.08, 0.13], SRMR = 0.05; Δ χ² (290) = 586.12, p < 0.001). Therefore, there is a low chance that common method bias appeared.

To test the hypotheses, we conducted hierarchical multiple regressions with PsyCap as a moderator. We transformed the predictors (WFC, personal distress, and negative team relationships) and the potential moderator (PsyCap) into Z scores and calculated the interaction between predictor x moderator. In Step 1, age, gender, and marital status, as control variables, were included. In Step 2, we entered both types of variables (the main predictor variables –WFC, personal distress, and negative team relationships, and the potential moderator –PsyCap). In Step 3, we added the predictor, potential moderator, and interaction term.

The results of these moderator analyses can be found in Table 2, 3, and 4. In Table 2, in Step 1, only age negatively predicted burnout (β= –0.13, p < 0.01). In Step 2, WFC positively predicted burnout (β= 0.64, p < 0.001), mental health complaints (β= 0.47, p < 0.001), and physical health complaints (β= 0.34, p < 0.001). In Table 3, in Step 1, there is no statistically significant result between control variables and outcomes. In Step 2, personal distress positively predicted burnout (β= 0.22, p < 0.001), mental health complaints (β= 0.23, p < 0.001), and physical health complaints (β= 0.11, p < 0.05). In Table 4, in Step 1, age positively predicted physical health complaints (β= 0.15, p < 0.05). In Step 2, negative team relationships positively predicted burnout (β= 0.22, p < 0.001), mental health complaints (β= 0.20, p < 0.001), and physical health complaints (β= 0.17, p < 0.001). These results offer support for Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3.

Table 2

Hierarchical multiple regression: The moderating effect of PsyCap in the relationship between work-family conflict and well-being (burnout, physical and mental complaints)

Steps	Predictors	Burnout			Physical health complaints			Mental health complaints
		β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β
1	Gender	–0.05	–0.05	–0.05	0.02	0.02	0.03	0.03	0.04	0.04
	Age	0.01	–0.13^**	–0.13^**	0.16^*	0.08	0.08	0.10	–0.003	–0.006
	Marital status	0.05	0.04	0.05	–0.009	–0.006	–0.003	0.03	0.02	0.04
2	WFC	0.64^***	0.62^***	0.34^*	0.32^*	0.47^***	0.42^***
	PsyCap		–0.17^***	–0.18^***		–0.19^***	–0.20^***		–0.10^*	–0.12^*
3	WFC x PsyCap			–0.06			–0.03			–0.13^**
	Total R²	–0.003	0.49	0.49	0.01	0.20	0.20	0.007	0.26	0.27
	Δ R²			0.004			0.001			0.01
	F Change	0.634	171.04^***	2.75	3.03^*	41.45^***	0.48	1.85	61.82^***	7.43^**

Note. ^*p < 0.05; ^**p < 0.01; ^***p < 0.001; N = 360. The coefficients beta is standardized in this table. WFC: Work-family conflict.

Table 3

Hierarchical multiple regression: The moderating effect of PsyCap in the relationship between personal distress and well-being (burnout, physical and mental complaints)

Steps	Predictors	Burnout			Physical health complaints			Mental health complaints
		β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β
1	Gender	–0.05	–0.05	–0.05	0.01	0.02	0.02	0.03	0.02	0.03
	Age	0.01	–0.05	–0.06	0.16	0.11	0.11	0.10	0.04	0.03
	Marital status	0.05	0.08	0.08	–0.009	0.01	0.01	0.03	0.05	0.05
2	Personal distress		0.22^***	0.22^***		0.11^*	0.10^*		0.23^***	22^***
	PsyCap		–0.29^***	–0.32^***		–0.26^***	–0.27^***		–0.18^**	–0.20^***
3	Personal distress×PsyCap			–0.16^**			–0.13^*			–0.14^**
	Total R²	0.005	0.17	0.19	0.01	0.11	0.13	0.007	0.11	0.13
	Δ R²			0.02			0.02			0.02
	F Change	0.634	37.17^***	110.70^**	3.03^*	190.88^***	60.39^*	10.85	21.57^***	7.76^**

Note. ^*p < 0.05; ^**p < 0.01; ^***p < 0.001; N = 360. The coefficients beta is standardized in this table.

Table 4

Hierarchical multiple regression: The moderating effect of PsyCap in the relationship between negative team relationships and well-being (burnout, physical and mental complaints)

Steps	Predictors	Burnout			Physical health complaints			Mental health complaints
		β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β	β
1	Gender	–0.05	–0.04	–0.04	0.02	0.03	0.03	0.03	0.04	0.04
	Age	0.01	–0.001	–0.01	0.16	0.15^*	0.14^*	0.10	0.10	0.09
	Marital status	0.05	0.06	0.06	–0.009	0.001	0.002	0.03	0.03	0.04
2	Negative team relationships		0.22^***	0.22^***		0.17^*	0.17^*		0.20^***	20^***
	PsyCap		–0.32^***	–0.39^***		–0.26^***	–0.30^***		–0.20^***	–0.26^***
3	Negative team relationships×PsyCap			–0.21^***			–0.11^*			–0.17^**
	Total R²	0.005	0.18	0.22	0.02	0.13	0.14	0.007	0.10	0.13
	Δ R²			0.04			0.01			0.02
	F Change	0.634	38.88^***	17.22^***	3.03^*	23.44^***	4.69^*	1.85	20.04^***	10.41^**

Note. ^*p < 0.05; ^**p < 0.01; ^***p < 0.001; N = 360. The coefficients beta is standardized in this table.

3.1 The moderating effect of PsyCap on the relationship between WFC and well-being

For hypothesis H4, the results of these moderation analyses are presented in Table 2. Hypothesis H4 proposes an interaction between PsyCap and WFC in predicting well-being outcomes (burnout, mental and physical health complaints).

The interaction between PsyCap and WFC is not significant for burnout (β= –0.06, p > 0.05) and physical health complaints (β= –0.03, p > 0.05), but is significant for mental health complaints (β= –0.13, p < 0.01). As a strategy, for each significant relation, we plotted the significant interaction at±1 SD from the mean of WFC (see Figs. at 2 to 8; [80]) and made simple slope analyses to determine the nature of these interactions.

PsyCap moderates the impact of WFC on mental health complaints (β= –0.13, p < 0.01; F(1, 353) = 7.43, p < 0.01; ΔR² = 0.015, p < 0.01). As shown in the simple slope chart in Fig. 2, findings suggested high WFC significantly predicted higher mental health complaints in Romanian correctional officers when PsyCap was low (b = 1.51, t = 3.78, p < 0.001); conversely, when correctional officers, with a high level of PsyCap, are confronted with a high level of WFC, they have lower levels of mental health complaints (b = 1.07, t = 9.76, p < 0.001). Thus, Hypothesis 4 was also partially supported by the data.

Fig. 2

Interaction effect of WFC and PsyCap in predicting mental health complaints.

3.2 The moderating effect of PsyCap on the relationship between personal distress and well-being

Hypothesis H5 proposes an interaction between PsyCap and personal distress in predicting well-being (burnout, mental health, and physical health complaints) for Romanian correctional officers. In Table 3, in Step3, the interaction between PsyCap and personal distress was significant for burnout, mental health complaints, and physical health complaints.

Thus, PsyCap moderates the impact of personal distress on burnout (β= –0.16, p < 0.01; F (1, 353) = 11.70, p < 0.01; ΔR² = 0.02, p < 0.01). The slopes analysis from Fig. 3 showed correctional officers with high PsyCap tended to report lower level of burnout, independent of their level of personal distress (b = 0.07, t = 0.12, p > 0.05). However, correctional officers with low PsyCap tended to report much higher burnout when they had high personal distress (b = 3.08, t = 5.40, p < 0.001).

Fig. 3

Interaction effect of personal distress and PsyCap in predicting burnout.

Also, PsyCap moderates the impact of personal distress on mental health complaints (β= –0.14, p < 0.01; F(1, 353) = 7.76, p < 0.01; ΔR² = 0.02, p < 0.01). In Fig. 4, simple slope analysis indicated that personal distress significantly predicts mental health complaints for Romanian correctional officers, when PsyCap is low (b = 1.44, t = 5.39, p < 0.001). Correctional officers with a high level of PsyCap tend to report less mental health complaints, despite they have different levels of personal distress (b = 0.26, t = 0.91, p > 0.05).

Fig. 4

Interaction effect of personal distress and PsyCap in predicting mental health complaints.

PsyCap moderates the impact of personal distress on physical health complaints (β= –0.13, p < 0.05; F(1, 353) = 6.39, p < 0.05; ΔR² = 0.02, p < 0.05). As shown in Fig. 5, personal distress was a stronger predictor of physical health complaints at low levels of PsyCap (b = 0.81, t = 3.80, p < 0.01), while at high levels of the moderator the effect ceased to be significant (b = –0.03, t = –0.15, p > 0.05). Hence, personal distress seems to be an important personal demand for physical health complaints, but only for those officers who have a low level of PsyCap, as a personal resource. Thus, Hypothesis 5 was also supported by the data.

Fig. 5

Interaction effect of personal distress and PsyCap in predicting physical health complaints.

3.3 The moderating effect of PsyCap on the relationship between negative team relationships and well-being

For hypothesis H6, the results of these moderator analyses are presented in Table 4. Hypothesis H6 proposes an interaction between PsyCap and negative team relationships in predicting well-being outcomes (burnout, mental health, and physical health complaints).

The interaction between PsyCap and negative team relationships, as seen in Step 3, was significant for burnout, mental health complaints, and physical health complaints. PsyCap moderates the impact of negative team relationships on burnout (β= –0.21, p < 0.001; F(1, 353) = 17.22, p < 0.001; ΔR² = 0.04, p < 0.001). As shown in the simple slope chart in Fig. 6, when confronted with high negative team relationships, correctional officers who have a low level of PsyCap have a high burnout level (b = 3.25, t = 6.21, p < 0.001). However, correctional officers with a high level of PsyCap, but experience different levels of negative team relationships, report similar, lower levels of burnout (b = 0.12, t = 0.24, p > 0.05).

Fig. 6

Interaction effect of negative team relationships and PsyCap in predicting burnout.

PsyCap moderates the impact of negative team relationships on mental health complaints (β= –0.17, p < 0.01; F(1, 353) = 10.41, p < 0.01; ΔR² = 0.02, p < 0.01). As depicted in Fig. 7, negative team relationships were a significant predictor of mental health complaints at low (b = 1.31, t = 5.20, p < 0.001) rather than high levels of PsyCap (b = 0.10, t = 0.41, p > 0.05). Hence, for mental health complaints, negative team relationships seem to be an important group demand, but only for those employees who have a low level of PsyCap, as a personal resource.

Fig. 7

Interaction effect of negative team relationships and PsyCap in predicting mental health complaints.

PsyCap moderates the impact of negative team relationships on physical health complaints (β= –0.11, p < 0.05; F(1, 353) = 4.69, p < 0.05; ΔR² = 0.01, p < 0.05). The slope analysis in Fig. 8 indicated that high negative team relationships experienced by Romanian correctional officers significantly predicted higher physical health complaints when PsyCap was low (b = 0.78, t = 3.74, p < 0.01). In the environment with the variation of negative team relationships, correctional officers with a high level of PsyCap reported a similar, lower level of physical health complaints, with the slope analysis having a p-value of p > 0.05 (b = 0.13, t = 0.68, p > 0.05). Thus, Hypothesis 6 was also supported by the data.

Fig. 8

Interaction effect of negative team relationships and PsyCap in predicting physical health complaints.

4 Discussion

This study investigated the predictive role of three demands: WFC, personal distress, and negative team relationships related to three different well-being indicators. This novel study examined specific interactions between several demands (job, personal, and group) and PsyCap, a crucial resource for correctional officers. We predicted that PsyCap would buffer the effect of demands on three negative indicators of well-being: burnout, physical and mental health complaints. To that end, we focused on PsyCap, a personal resource, which was hypothesized to moderate the relationship between demands and well-being.

Therefore, this study brings notable theoretical and practical contributions. First, this study brings value by its’ focus on new types of demands, particularly personal and group demands. Our research is also focused on the relation that these demands have with well-being, which we operationalized with greater complexity than past literature, based on three negative indicators. Thus, this study brings additional knowledge to the JD-R theory by studying new and different types of demands vis-a-vis well-being, as described by Bakker and Demerouti [6]. Second, PsyCap, as a potential moderating variable, has just recently become subject to research [81]. Thus, we focused on PsyCap, a personal resource that moderates the relationship between demands and well-being. Based on COR theory, we were interested in this variable, as we were expecting it to exert a buffering effect on the association between job demands and well-being indicators by enhancing the adaptability of correctional officers.

In line with JD-R theory, we found that personal distress acted as a personal demand and was positively related to all three indicators of ill-being: burnout, mental health complaints, and physical health complaints. This finding highlights the adverse effects of personal distress on well-being. Previous studies have provided evidence for the relationship between personal distress and well-being [39 –41]. However, these studies focused only on single aspects of well-being, such as burnout or fatigue. Thus, our study demonstrates that personal distress acts as a personal demand or vulnerability factor playing a relevant role in employees’ well-being. Therefore, correctional officers who have a high level of personal distress are not very calm, do not have patience, quickly lose control, feel exhausted and burned out, and have a higher number of physical and mental health complaints.

Our results also offer support for the positive relationship between WFC, as job demand, and burnout, and mental and physical health complaints. These results build the literature concerning correctional officers’ experiences of conflicting work and personal life, as little is currently known regarding these relations. Our results align with previous research in different organizational contexts that have demonstrated a negative impact of WFC on several individual outcomes, including physical and mental health [28, 29], burnout, and psychological strain [31]. In correctional institutions, a stressful, unpredictable work environment with critical situations requiring increased attention can impact the private life domain. For example, institutional crises and emergencies in corrections involve shift work and mandatory overtime, and correctional officers are often absent from familial milestones. Therefore, correctional officers who experience high levels of WFC also report high levels of burnout, mental and physical health complaints.

Furthermore, the present study shows that negative team relationships are positively related to adverse well-being outcomes. Previous studies supported our results, which suggested that poor interpersonal relationships were critical predictors of mental health [15]. Past studies have also shown that co-worker aggression was associated with poorer overall health and well-being and negative work attitudes, including worse physical symptoms, burnout, and job satisfaction [51, 52]. Because correctional officers need to work in teams, knowledge about relationships between members affect individuals’ well-being is essential. The team is a crucial element in correctional officers’ activity since they need to know that they can rely on their colleagues when the situation requires it. When this does not happen, and when there are tensions between team members, correctional officers experience exhaustion and burnout and complain more about their health.

4.1 The moderating effect of PsyCap

Regarding the buffering effects of PsyCap, our results have shown that Psycap significantly attenuates the relationships between personal distress, negative team relationships, and the three ill-being indicators: burnout, physical and mental health. PsyCap also moderated the relationship between WFC and mental health complaints but not between WFC and burnout and between WFC and physical health complaints. These results align with the assumptions of JD-R [6] and COR [10] theories, which predict that PsyCap would act as a personal resource, diminishing the impact of demands on correctional officers’ well-being. The possible explanations of these findings are presented in the following sections.

First, our results showed that correctional officers with a high level of PsyCap are less burned out and declare fewer physical and mental health complaints even when personal distress is high. Second, the results showed that when correctional officers are confronted with negative team relationships, they are less burned out and mention fewer physical and mental health complaints if they have a high level of PsyCap. Moreover, correctional officers with a high level of PsyCap report fewer mental health complaints, even when confronted with high WFC.

Based on the COR theory, employees with greater personal resources have more strength to manage demands than those who do not have enough personal resources. Thus, correctional officers who have high PsyCap, as a personal resource, will better cope with demands in the workplace, which prevents officers’ well-being from deteriorating. These results correspond to other studies in which PsyCap was considered a positive resource in the face of demands. For example, PsyCap was a positive resource in overcoming depression symptoms among correctional officers [57]. One possible explanation for these results is that a high level of PsyCap helps manage negative behaviors and emotions linked to stressful work or life situations [65]. According to COR theory, PsyCap as a resource allows individuals to adapt in the face of threat (i.e., demands). PsyCap also helps in coping with adverse events at the workplace so that a high level of PsyCap would diminish the adverse effects of demands on well-being. This study suggests that PsyCap moderates the impact of different demands on well-being.

4.2 Theoretical and practical implications

In terms of theoretical implications, this study supports not only the basic assumptions of JD-R theory but also the inclusion of personal demands and resources. For example, our findings provide a more precise explanation of relations between new demands (e.g., personal, group) and various types of well-being. When studying a work context as complex as that of correctional officers, it is beneficial to consider specific aspects. Therefore, the assessment of demands must be contextualized and benefit correctional officers from a theoretical and practical perspective. This study provides some clarification on the role of personal resources in JD-R theory, suggesting that PsyCap moderates the relation between demands and well-being. Specifically, high levels of PsyCap reduced the effects of certain demands on well-being. Our data revealed that this personal resource is essential for all types of well-being. Recently, in a sample of Korean correctional officers, Cho and colleagues [82] examined the relationship between job demands, job resources, and burnout and the mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction. Their results showed that insufficient job resources were indirectly related to burnout via low psychological needs satisfaction, and job demands showed only a direct effect on burnout [82]. Our study provides additional information on the role of personal resources in the JD-R theory, as results indicate that personal resources buffer the relation between demands and well-being. In this study, we demonstrated the moderating role of PsyCap, as a personal resource, in mitigating the effects of different sources of stress (job, personal, and group) on well-being. PsyCap is a flexible personal resource and can be increased among correctional officers through various specific interventions, which will help them fight and cope better with new sources of stress.

Another benefit of this research is that PsyCap was used as a second-order construct, while other research focused on only some of its dimensions. Studies have shown that PsyCap, as a core construct, is associated with reduced stress and enhanced well-being (e.g., [7]). This research shows that this concept moderates the relationship between demands and the well-being of correctional officers and is an essential personal resource for them. The buffering role of PsyCap has practical value because it suggests that personal resources may mitigate the effect of demands, thus preventing employees from developing low levels of well-being. Therefore, our results might provide important insights into various human resources practices, such as training and workshops for job incumbents. Personal resources are malleable characteristics that can be increased through specific training and interventions, and, in this way, correctional officers can better adapt to work conditions or stress. Usually, PsyCap interventions are brief trainings delivered in one or more sessions. They are usually conducted in small to medium-sized groups to increase PsyCap at the employee level. According to a recent meta-analysis, this training can last from one hour to four weeks and consists of a series of exercises to increase employees’ psychological resources [83]. By implementing this kind of training, organizations could develop correctional officers’ positive personal resources and align them with organizational missions and goals. Managers could also encourage employees to take the initiative to solve relational problems in the team and support those who need help to manage better work-home interactions. For example, correctional officers could benefit from training programs designed to improve empathy. One such program is the L.E.A.D.E.R.S. (Listening Empathically and Discerning Empathic Relationship Skills), being used by Bates [84] in the case of juvenile correctional officers.

5 Limitations and directions for future research

Study limitations are listed below. This study uses a cross-sectional design. Hence, we cannot infer temporality and causal relations regarding demands, moderators, and well-being indicators. The present study also used self-reported data. Future research should employ more objective data, such as expert reports or objective health indicators (e.g., periodic medical evaluations). Given the single-source, self-reported, and cross-sectional nature of our data, there is a possibility that common method bias [81] might have influenced some of our results. However, Harman’s single-factor test confirmed that the variance could not be explained by a single factor, suggesting a low chance of common method variance to have significantly influenced our results.

Regarding future research directions, other personal resources (e.g., self-mastery, psychological needs at work) and organizational resources (e.g., perceived organizational support, supportive organizational climate) should be examined as moderators in multi-level studies. These should also investigate other stressors (e.g., role strain, ambiguity) that correctional officers may face. Future research should also examine the relationship between well-being and the demands of correctional officers in other countries to evaluate specific cross-cultural differences. This study examined few potential confounders (such as individual risk factors), and residual confounding may have occurred. Future studies should collect and evaluate other individual risk factors and occupational exposures (e.g., psychosocial exposures, organizational stressors) to examine the potential effect that confounding variables might have in existing models.

6 Conclusions

A correctional officer’s job is physically and mentally demanding. It is associated with more challenges and demands than many other professions. One aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between different types of demands and well-being; a second aim was to explore how PsyCap, as a personal resource, may potentially moderate these relations. Our results show that PsyCap attenuates the effect of personal distress and negative team relationships on all three indicators of ill-being. PsyCap also moderates the relation between WFC and mental health complaints. However, it does not act as a moderator between WFC and burnout or physical health complaints.

The findings of this research suggested some support concerning the link between occupation-specific demands and well-being. Thus, future associations should be carefully contextualized, depending on demands related to work and personal characteristics. Moreover, training employees to develop their PsyCap might help to face different demands while also being beneficial for correctional officers’ well-being.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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