The relationship between being envied and coworker exchange: The moderating roles of narcissism and the need for affiliation

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Workplace envy is a common, yet easily overlooked, phenomenon in the workplace, and it has an important impact on an organization. However, the majority of studies have focused on this topic from the perspective of the envier, and research from the perspective of the envied target is insufficient.

OBJECTIVE:

Building on social information processing theory, this study investigated the effects of being envied on coworker exchange and examined the influence of individual factors on this relationship.

METHOD:

A two-wave field survey was adopted for data collection, and 288 employees from six companies in the south of China were included. A longitudinal cross-lagged panel analysis and the Latent Moderated Structural Equations (LMS) approach were performed using Mplus 8.3.

RESULTS:

The findings show that being envied has a negative effect on coworker exchange and that this negative relationship is stronger when narcissism is higher or the need for affiliation is lower.

CONCLUSION:

This study contributes to the literature on workplace envy by providing new insights and theoretical perspectives. Future research should focus on both people who envy and people who are envied, supervisor–subordinate envy, and the relationship between narcissism and being envied.

Keywords

Workplace envy social exchange social information processing theory

1 Introduction

When employees compare themselves unfavorably with others in the workplace, they may experience feelings of envy [1]. Envy is an unpleasant and painful negative emotion that results from unfavorable comparisons with others [2]. Prior studies have mainly focused on envious individuals [3 –5]. However, envy is a dyadic emotion that involves both the person who feels envy and the envied target [6]. Thus, studying this dyadic phenomenon from the perspective of one dyad member is theoretically deficient [7]. Recent empirical research has focused on envy from the perspective of the envied target. For instance, Lee et al. demonstrated that being envied can produce unpleasant emotions, which negatively influence job engagement and job performance [8]. Additionally, Liu et al. found that being envied by coworkers is positively associated with workplace ostracism [9].

While previous research has consistently demonstrated that being envied can lead to negative outcomes, the majority of studies have focused on attitudinal or behavioral outcomes, such as turnover intentions and interpersonal citizenship behavior [10]. However, some scholars have pointed out that compared with attitudinal or behavioral outcomes, social exchange relationships (e.g., coworker exchange) more accurately explain the relationship between those who feel envy and their envied targets [11]. Particularly in Chinese culture, employees are likely to prioritize the evaluations of their coworkers. As a result, when employees are envied by their coworkers, they may feel more pain [12], which may damage the relationship between the employees and their coworkers (i.e., coworker exchange). Coworker exchange is defined as the exchange that occurs between coworkers who report to the same supervisor [13]. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of being envied on coworker exchange to enrich knowledge on the outcomes of being envied.

In addition, research has shown that being envied has many negative consequences, so it is important for organizations to identify moderators that can mitigate these negative effects. However, only a few studies have explored this issue. For example, Liu et al. identified the moderating role of neuroticism in the relationship between being envied and ostracism, but they also suggested that there are other individual factors that need to be further explored [9]. Puranik et al. recommended that future research should examine a wider range of individual factors [11]. Furthermore, researchers have suggested that in addition to the antecedents and consequences, it is also important to examine the boundary conditions of coworker envy in the Chinese context, such as narcissism [12]. Thus, it is necessary to explore the moderating roles of individual factors on envied employees to better understand the influence of being envied. In response to these calls, our research further examines the effect of two individual factors (narcissism and the need for affiliation) on the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange based on social information processing theory.

2 Theory and hypotheses

2.1 Being envied and coworker exchange

Researchers have noted that envy is a common experience for most people. It describes an emotion of intense desire to possess what another person has [14]. However, the perspective of being envied is also an important component of workplace envy [15]. Envied targets are people who are envied for many reasons, such as promotions, salaries/bonuses, and office size [16]. The envier’s desire for these things may create a relational bond between the envier and the envied target [17]. Scholars have illustrated that the perception of being envied is a double-edged sword that has both positive and negative effects. In terms of its negative effects, social undermining behavior from envious coworkers and damage to the exchange relationship between coworkers may occur [3]. Positive effects may include interpersonal citizenship behavior and facilitation of the exchange relationship between coworkers [10]. Hence, whether being envied has a positive or negative impact on coworker exchange remains to be clarified. Based on social information processing theory, the present study expected that being envied would negatively affect coworker exchange.

According to social information processing theory, the cognition, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals are determined by the information available to them, which usually comes from their immediate social environment [18]. This social environment provides information that people use to interpret events happening around them and contextual cues about what attitudes and behaviors should be [18]. Coworkers are one of the primary sources from which employees gather information about work and interaction. Being envied by coworkers provides employees with a cue that the external work environment may be a threat because coworker envy can lead to aggressive behavior toward employees [3]. To eliminate this threat, envied employees tend to adopt self-protection strategies to better adapt to their environment [11], such as avoiding contact with coworkers or reducing their level of trust in coworkers [19]. This reduced level of trust can lead to destruction of the social exchange [20]. We therefore hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 1: Being envied is negatively related to coworker exchange.

Social information processing theory suggests that individuals selectively process information about their social environment and evaluate the environment based on their personal characteristics [18]. For example, Liu et al. found that neuroticism moderates the relationship between being envied and workplace ostracism [9]. Thus, this study further examined the moderating effect of individual characteristics (i.e., narcissism and the need for affiliation) on the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange.

2.2 The moderating role of narcissism

Narcissism is characterized by low empathy, grandiose egotism, beliefs that one should be treated in a special way, strong feelings of uniqueness, and aggressive or manipulative behavior toward others [21 –24]. Because of their grandiose sense of self [25], narcissists may be extremely sensitive to social cues from others, leading them to self-regulate toward a self-protection goal after interpreting the information from the social environment around them [11, 26]. To maintain a positive self-view and protect themselves from threats [24], narcissistic employees are more likely to respond to negative feedback in an aggressive way [27]. When highly narcissistic employees are envied by coworkers, they are more likely to be sensitive to the information that they are envied. To prevent coworkers’ aggressive behavior from destroying their positive self-image, highly narcissistic employees are likely to express hostile emotions and behaviors toward envious coworkers [28]. This may cause resentment among coworkers or coworker ostracization [9, 10], which may ultimately affect exchange relationships between coworkers. Inversely, when employees with a low level of narcissism are envied by coworkers, they are less likely to be sensitive to the information that they are envied, and they will be less worried about the aggressive behaviors of coworkers that result from this envy. As a result, envied employees will reduce negative behaviors toward coworkers, and their relationships with coworkers will thus become less intense. We therefore hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 2: Narcissism moderates the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange such that the relationship is stronger when narcissism is high.

2.3 The moderating role of the need for affiliation

The need for affiliation is a strong desire for social contact or a sense of belonging to a group. It is related to an individual’s tendency to derive social satisfaction as a reward from harmonious relationships and conversing with others [29]. Scholars have suggested that the need for affiliation is one of the most basic human needs [30], and it is especially salient in the work domain [31]. A strong need for affiliation is often observed in individuals who are motivated to establish and maintain social relationships with others and who enjoy being part of a group [32]. As a result, individuals with a strong need for affiliation have a more intrinsic need to belong and are more likely to be sensitive to social cues, such as tone of voice and facial expressions [33].

According to social information processing theory, employees with a strong need for affiliation are motivated to monitor their work environment frequently and to interpret the information surrounding them. Employees with a strong need for affiliation are more sensitive to envy from coworkers and have a desire to receive approval and reassurance from coworkers. To maintain good relationships with envious coworkers, envied employees are more likely to engage in relationship-enhancing behaviors to decrease hostility from coworkers [10]. Previous research has shown that the fear of being envied may trigger pro-social behavior [34]. Conversely, employees with a low need for affiliation are less motivated to maintain good relationships with envious coworkers, may pay less attention to their social environment, and may be reluctant to improve their interpersonal relationships with coworkers. That is, envied employees with a lower need for affiliation are more likely to ignore what coworkers think or feel about them, which may further increase hostility from coworkers resulting from a feeling of inferiority. As a result, employees might not care about their exchange relationships with coworkers, and they may even have worse relationships when they are the target of envy. Liu et al. demonstrated that employees may perceive being ostracized by coworkers when they are the target of envy [9]. Thus, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 3: The need for affiliation moderates the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange such that the relationship is stronger when the need for affiliation is low.

3 Methods

3.1 Participants and procedures

This study enrolled employees from six companies in the south of China. Because competitive climates may breed envy more easily and these companies have competitive performance appraisal and pay systems, these companies enabled us to capture variability in being envied and coworker exchange. We first explained the objectives of this study to the enrolled companies. After obtaining permission from the managers of these companies, we distributed surveys at two points four weeks apart. At time point 1, we asked employees to report demographic information, their perceptions of being envied, and their views on coworker exchange, narcissism, and the need for affiliation. The questionnaires were distributed to 507 employees. We received responses from 346 employees for a response rate of 68.24% for the first survey. At time point 2, we collected data from time point 1 respondents and asked them to rate their perceptions of being envied and coworker exchange. Finally, we obtained 288 completed surveys that were matched to the first survey for a response rate of 83.24%.

Table 1 shows the demographic information of the participants. Of the 288 employee participants, 58.68% were female. The average (±standard deviation [SD]) age of the participants was 33.71±8.51 years (range, 21–55 years), and the average job tenure was 6.74±4.39 years (range, 0.2–18 years). In terms of education, 12.84% of the participants were educated to the senior high school level or below, 26.39% to the college level, 47.92% to the Bachelor’s level, and the remaining 12.85% to the Master’s level or higher. In terms of position level, 75.35% of the participants held a non-managerial position, 13.19% held a junior managerial position, 7.99% held another position, and only 3.47% held an intermediate managerial position.

Table 1
Description of the sample

N %

Gender

Male 119 41.32

Female 169 58.68

Age range

21–30 125 43.40

31–40 101 35.07

41–50 45 15.63

51–60 17 5.90

Education

Senior high school or below 37 12.84

College 76 26.39

Bachelor 138 47.92

Master or higher 37 12.85

Tenure

Less than 1 year 38 13.20

1–5 year 69 23.95

5–10 year 134 46.53

More than 10 years 47 16.32

Position level

Non-manager 217 75.35

Junior manager 38 13.19

Intermediate manager 10 3.47

Other position 23 7.99

	N	%
Gender
Male	119	41.32
Female	169	58.68
Age range
21–30	125	43.40
31–40	101	35.07
41–50	45	15.63
51–60	17	5.90
Education
Senior high school or below	37	12.84
College	76	26.39
Bachelor	138	47.92
Master or higher	37	12.85
Tenure
Less than 1 year	38	13.20
1–5 year	69	23.95
5–10 year	134	46.53
More than 10 years	47	16.32
Position level
Non-manager	217	75.35
Junior manager	38	13.19
Intermediate manager	10	3.47
Other position	23	7.99

3.2 Measures

All measures were originally developed in English and translated into Chinese using Brislin’s translation/back-translation procedure [35]. The items had seven Likert-type response options ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

3.2.1 Being envied

Being envied by coworkers was measured using Vecchio’s 3-item scale [15], which has been widely used in previous research [8, 9]. A sample item is “Some of my coworkers are envious of my accomplishments.” Cronbach’s alpha for being envied was 0.88 in Wave 1 and 0.75 in Wave 2.

3.2.2 Coworker exchange

Coworker exchange was measured using a 6-item scale from Sherony and Green [13], which is based on the measure of leader–member exchange [36]. This scale was designed to assess respondents’ relationships with coworkers. A sample item is “My working relationship with my coworker is effective.” Cronbach’s alpha for coworker exchange was 0.88 in Wave 1 and 0.87 in Wave 2.

3.2.3 Narcissism

Narcissism was measured with a 9-item scale from Jones and Paulhus’s “short dark triad” measure [37], which is based on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory [38]. Example statements include “I know that I am special because everyone keeps telling me so” and “Many group activities tend to be dull without me.” Three items were reverse-scored. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.94 in Wave 1.

3.2.4 The need for affiliation

We measured employees’ need for affiliation using the 4-item scale from Zhu et al. [39], which has been adapted from the study of O’Fallon and Butterfield [40]. An example item is “I love to work in a group instead of by myself.” Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.86 in Wave 1.

3.2.5 Control variables

Consistent with a previous study on being envied [9], participants’ demographic information (gender, age, education, job tenure, and position level) were controlled in this research^rmbox1\footnote []^rmbox1The results remained the same with and without controlling for those variables..

3.3 Analytical strategies

Mplus 8.3 was adopted for data analysis. First, descriptive statistics and correlations were obtained. Second, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed for the major variables (i.e., being envied, narcissism, need for affiliation, and coworker exchange). Finally, a longitudinal cross-lagged panel analysis and the Latent Moderated Structural Equations (LMS) approach were implemented to test the moderating roles of narcissism and the need for affiliation.

4 Results

4.1 Descriptive statistics and correlations

Table 2 presents the means, SDs, alpha reliabilities, and correlations for all studied variables. The results showed that being envied in Wave 1 was negatively related to coworker exchange in Wave 2, providing preliminary support for H1.

Table 2
Means, standard deviations, correlations, and reliabilities

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Gender 1.59^a 0.49 –

Age 33.71 8.51 –0.14^* –

Job tenure 6.74 4.39 –0.13^* –0.66^** –

Education 2.61 0.87 –0.09 –0.08 –0.13^* –

Position level 1.83 1.25 –0.16^ 0.28^ 0.27^** 0.10 –

Wave 1 BE 3.70 1.30 0.03 –0.14^* –0.15^* 0.06 –0.02 (0.88)

Wave 1 CWX 4.10 1.09 0.12^* –0.07 –0.08 0.09 –0.12^* –0.2^* (0.88)

Wave 1 Nar 3.80 0.98 –0.03 –0.09 –0.09 0.08 0.02 –0.28^ –0.09 (0.94)

Wave 1 The NFA 3.59 1.06 0.03 –0.17^ –0.20^ –0.06 –0.03 0.29^ –0.08 –0.38^** (0.86)

Wave 2 BE 3.69 0.73 0.07 –0.13^* –0.13^* 0.02 0.05 0.56^ 0.04 0.51 –0.35 (0.87)

Wave 2 CWX 4.03 0.84 –0.04 0.11 0.12 –0.04 –0.02 –0.23^ –0.15^* –0.29^ 0.33^ –0.24^** (0.87)

Variables	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
Gender	1.59^a	0.49	–
Age	33.71	8.51	–0.14^*	–
Job tenure	6.74	4.39	–0.13^*	–0.66^**	–
Education	2.61	0.87	–0.09	–0.08	–0.13^*	–
Position level	1.83	1.25	–0.16^**	0.28^**	0.27^**	0.10	–
Wave 1 BE	3.70	1.30	0.03	–0.14^*	–0.15^*	0.06	–0.02	(0.88)
Wave 1 CWX	4.10	1.09	0.12^*	–0.07	–0.08	0.09	–0.12^*	–0.2^*	(0.88)
Wave 1 Nar	3.80	0.98	–0.03	–0.09	–0.09	0.08	0.02	–0.28^**	–0.09	(0.94)
Wave 1 The NFA	3.59	1.06	0.03	–0.17^**	–0.20^**	–0.06	–0.03	0.29^**	–0.08	–0.38^**	(0.86)
Wave 2 BE	3.69	0.73	0.07	–0.13^*	–0.13^*	0.02	0.05	0.56^**	0.04	0.51	–0.35	(0.87)
Wave 2 CWX	4.03	0.84	–0.04	0.11	0.12	–0.04	–0.02	–0.23^**	–0.15^*	–0.29^**	0.33^**	–0.24^**	(0.87)

Note. N = 288. SD = Standard deviation; BE = Being envied; CWX = Coworker exchange; Nar = Narcissism; NFA = Need for affiliation. Cronbach’s alpha in the parentheses along the diagonal. “–” indicates that the numbers are not applicable. ^aEmployee gender: Male = 1, Female = 2. ^*p < 0.05 (two-tailed), ^**p < 0.01 (two-tailed), ^*** p < 0.001 (two-tailed).

4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

We conducted a CFA to check the validity of the key variables, including four variables in Wave 1 (i.e., being envied, narcissism, need for affiliation, and coworker exchange) and two variables in Wave 2 (i.e., being envied and coworker exchange). The measurement model indicated that the fit indices of the data were acceptable. The results were as follows: χ² = 773.97, df = 419, χ²/df = 1.85, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA (90% CI)=0.05, SRMR = 0.04. The factor loading of all latent variables in the measurement model was > 0.60, which supported convergent validity.

4.3 Hypothesis testing

The cross-lagged panel analysis was conducted to examine the longitudinal relationship between being envied and coworker exchange. The results of this analysis showed that the model fitted the data well: χ² = 832.54, df = 423, χ²/df = 1.97, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.06, SRMR = 0.05. As presented in Fig. 1, the standardized path coefficients of the longitudinal cross-lagged analysis showed that the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange was non-reciprocal (b = –0.02, p > 0.05). The negative coefficient for the path from being envied in Wave 1 to coworker exchange in Wave 2 was significant (b = –0.65, p < 0.001), which supports H1.

Fig. 1

The longitudinal cross-lagged model of being envied and coworker exchange. ^* p < 0.05 (two-tailed), ^**p < 0.01 (two-tailed), ^***p < 0.001 (two-tailed).

Based on Klein and Moosbrugger’s research [41], we adopted the LMS approach to test the moderating roles of narcissism and the need for affiliation between being envied and coworker exchange. Gender, age, education, job tenure, and position level were controlled variables (Table 3). As shown in Table 3, being envied in Wave 1 had a negative effect on coworker exchange in Wave 2, which further supports H1 (b = –0.21, p < 0.05). Moreover, the significant interaction terms support the moderating roles of narcissism and the need for affiliation between being envied and coworker exchange. The moderating roles of narcissism and the need for affiliation are further demonstrated in Figs. 2 and 3. Specifically, when narcissism was high, being envied had a stronger negative impact on coworker exchange (simple slope = –0.21, p < 0.05) compared with when narcissism was low (simple slope = –0.08, p < 0.05). Moreover, when the need for affiliation was high, being envied had a weaker negative impact on coworker exchange (simple slope = –0.21, p < 0.05) compared with when the need for affiliation was low (simple slope = –0.3, p < 0.001). Hence, H2 and H3 were supported.

Table 3

The moderating effect of narcissism and need for affiliation

Variables	Estimate	S. E.	Est./S. E.	P-value
Gender	–0.03	0.03	–0.94	0.35
Age	0.16	0.14	1.20	0.23
Job tenure	–0.17	0.14	–1.23	0.22
Education	–0.03	0.04	–0.69	0.49
Position level	–0.001	0.04	–0.02	0.99
Wave 1 BE	–0.21^*	0.09	–2.40	0.02
Wave 1 Nar	–0.33^**	0.11	–3.13	0.002
Wave 1 The NFA	–0.29^***	0.06	–5.14	0.000
Wave 1 BE×Wave 1 Nar	0.13^***	0.04	3.59	0.000
Wave 1 BE×Wave 1 The NFA	–0.09^**	0.04	–2.55	0.01

Note. N = 288. BE = Being envied; Nar = Narcissism; NFA = Need for affiliation. The dependent variable is coworker exchange in Wave 2. ^*p < 0.05 (two-tailed), ^**p < 0.01 (two-tailed), ^***p < 0.001 (two-tailed).

Fig. 2

The moderating effect of narcissism between being envied and coworker exchange.

Fig. 3

The moderating effect of need for affiliation between being envied and coworker exchange. Note. NFA = Need for affiliation.

5 Discussion

Interpersonal relationships in the workplace have always been an important issue in Chinese culture [42]. As scholars have noted, compared with Western culture, Chinese culture places more emphasis on collectivism and interpersonal relationships [43]. Thus, Chinese employees pay more attention to social exchange with coworkers [44] and become particularly sensitive to coworkers’ behaviors when they are the target of envy [12]. Therefore, adopting social information processing theory, this study explored the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange in the Chinese context and further tested the moderating roles of narcissism and the need for affiliation. The results showed that being envied has a negative effect on coworker exchange. Narcissism amplified this effect, while the need for affiliation weakened this effect.

5.1 Theoretical implications

This study makes several theoretical contributions to the literature. First, we enriched the body of research on envy by orienting the research focus to the envied target. Although most previous studies have focused on the individual who expresses envy, the perspective of the envied target has rarely been considered [45, 46]. However, scholars have suggested that the experience of being envied is prevalent and that perceptions of being envied are also important in the workplace [8, 9]. Additionally, being envied has strong emotional and social effects on individuals [17, 47] because of the prevalence of envy and the interactions and relationships that it affects [16]. Thus, we expand the understanding of workplace envy by examining this topic from the perspective of being envied. Second, our work contributes to the literature on workplace envy from a theoretical perspective of social information processing. Scholars have examined the consequences of being envied from different theoretical perspectives, such as from the cognitive appraisal perspective of emotion [8]. Yet some researchers believe that employees may systematically process information about their environment when they become the target of envy [9, 48]. We introduced a novel theoretical perspective based on social information processing theory to examine the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange. Third, our study identified that individual difference is an important boundary condition. Specifically, our findings showed that narcissism and the need for affiliation play moderating roles in the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange. Envied employees may have a low-quality exchange with coworkers when they are highly narcissistic or when they have a lower need for affiliation. This result is consistent with previous research showing that individual characteristics may lead to a difference in employees’ perceptions of being envied and related outcomes [9, 49].

5.2 Practical implications

Our research has some important practical implications. First, organizations should create an environment where employees feel equal and comfortable. Our study indicated that being envied negatively affects coworker exchange. This result provides a warning to organizations and managers that envy should be controlled or reduced. Armed with the knowledge that envy may increase the sensitization of employees to behaviors from coworkers [50], organizations should seek to increase the level of trust between employees and coworkers to promote their social exchange [51] and thus reduce envy. Second, managers should consider the impact of differences in individual employee characteristics. Given that individual characteristics have an important impact on the perceptions and responses of being envied, managers should pay attention to employees who express a high level of narcissism or who have a low need for affiliation and consider individual characteristics when hiring employees.

5.3 Limitations and future research directions

Like most studies, this study has several inevitable limitations. First, we found that the negative relationship between being envied and coworker exchange was moderated by both narcissism and the need for affiliation. Future research should consider whether this negative relationship can further increase counterproductive work behavior (CWB) or reduce organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) from coworkers. In other words, future research should explore the mediating role of coworker exchange between being envied and work behavior. Second, this study examined envy between employees and their coworkers, but it did not explore envy between supervisors and their subordinates. Scholars have shown that supervisors may also envy their subordinates and experience downward envy [5]. Thus, future research should further explore supervisor–subordinate envy. Third, employees who rated high in terms of narcissism were more likely to perceive being envied because employees with a high level of narcissism may expect other coworkers to envy them. We hope that future research will further confirm this relationship.

6 Conclusions

Being envied by coworkers is a common phenomenon in the workplace that affects coworker exchange. Adopting a social information processing perspective, this study proposed a moderated model to explain the relationship between being envied and coworker exchange. We found that being envied is negatively related to coworker exchange and that narcissism and the need for affiliation moderate this negative relationship. Specifically, narcissism amplifies this relationship, while the need for affiliation weakens this relationship.

Conflict of interest

None to report.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

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