Job demands-resources model and burnout in physical education teaching: A mixed-method sequential explanatory study

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

While literature includes a number of studies about burnout in teaching, investigations on teaching field-specific perspective remain limited. Research is needed to improve practical implications based on structured theoretical models and methodological basis that focusses on the unique environment of PE teaching field and causal factors behind burnout.

OBJECTIVE:

The present study aimed to examine burnout among physical education (PE) teachers based on the job demands-resources (J-DR) model.

METHODS:

A sequential explanatory mixed design was conducted in the study. 173 teachers replied to questionnaires, of which 14 teachers thereafter participated in semi-structured interviews. Demographic information form, Maslach Burnout Inventory, and J-DR scale for PE teachers were used, as well as an interview form. 173 teachers were first asked to report demographic information, and score Maslach Burnout Inventory and J-DR scale. Then a subsample group (n = 14) was identified/sampled for a semi-structured interview. Canonical correlation and constant comparative analysis were used to unpack the data.

RESULTS:

Teachers’ states of burnout varied, and physical, organisational, and socio-cultural resources were closely related with burnout levels. Demands that cause pressure on burnout were determined as paperwork and bureaucracy, student-related factors, and pandemic-related experiences. In addition to supporting the general model, specific J-DR factors for PE teaching were observed that is linked with burnout.

CONCLUSION:

J-DR factors that might lead to negative conditions in the teaching environment should be considered, and field-specific factors should be focused on through arrangements to increase teaching efficiency and improve the quality of PE teachers’ professional life.

Keywords

Burnout syndrome school sport physical education workplace

1 Introduction

1.1 Theoretical background: Burnout in teaching and job demands-resources model

Teachers’ tendency to continue their profession has recently declined along with a decrease in professional motivation [1, 2]. This decrease is associated with such factors as the stress in the school environment, job satisfaction expectations, poor organisational relationships, heavy demands, and insufficiency of resources [3, 4], which has also brought the concept of burnout to the forefront. Burnout in teaching results from individual, social and organizational factors such as insufficient personal rights, the need for autonomy, limited organisational resources, as well as class management demands and behavioural issues of students [5]. Moreover, depending on social interaction within the organisational structure, teachers’ energy and abilities might be affected during professional activities [6]. Overcrowded classrooms, bureaucratic pressures, work overload, inadequate physical conditions, poor organisational support, conflict among colleagues, being unrewarded, and lack of participation in decision-making, may lead to burnout in teaching [7, 8]. Madigan and Kim [9] reported that burnout is more effective factor than job satisfaction on teachers’ intention to quit job. In addition, attrition risk in teaching may be increased over time because of intensive burnout factors [9]. Teachers who have social and ethical responsibilities, are prone to experience burnout in a stressful environment [10]. Therefore, qualified and responsible teachers should be protected from burnout factors for their professional continuity and keeping quality in educational process.

“Job burnout syndrome”, which appears as the stress experienced at a chronic level in the professional environment, is still discussed by studies in educational sciences [2 , 12]. According to Maslach [13], burnout is a psychological syndrome that comes out as the last reaction of individuals’ resistance to chronic stressors and causes incompatibility and tension between an individual and his/her job. Maslach’s inventory defines and measure the multi-dimensional psycho-social components of burnout as emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and personal accomplishment [14]. In the context of the teaching profession, “emotional exhaustion” defines the state of being unable to respond to the affective and psychological demands at the school; “depersonalisation” refers to estrangement from the professional social circle and the negative tendency in inter-personal relationships; and “personal accomplishment” is associated with a decreased sense of accomplishment in the profession and moving away from achievement goals [15]. Maslach’s burnout inventory and its dimensions are the most frequently used in educational studies and maintains its place in up-to-date research [16]. In a recent literature review [17], it was reported that three dimensions of burnout well understood and became stable in studies while personal, organizational factors, overloads, lack of resources and control threaten teachers to experience burnout in these dimensions [17].

Burnout and engagement states of individuals in the workplace are formed through interaction between the opportunities and tasks offered to them as well as the quantitative and qualitative structure of the job environment. This interaction is explained by an inverse relational model between the resources and demands in the job demands-resources (J-DR) model [18]. Job demands refer to the tasks for which employees put an effort to fulfil within the organisation that put pressure on employees [19]. On the other hand, resources include all abstract and concrete tools that are provided by an organisation to its employees [18]. In the context of the teaching profession, dealing with undesirable student behaviour and planning curriculum are examples of job demands, while participation in decision-making processes, adequacy of teaching materials, and support from colleagues can be taken as an example of job resources. Zhang and Chen [20] initially studied J-DR factors conceptualization in the context of PE teaching specific environment. According to their study, demands were described by three dimensions: “physical”, “cognitive”, “emotional” while resources were described under two dimension as “physical” and “organizational”. Accordingly, “physical demands” defines the load on the muscular and skeletal systems of the individual while doing his tasks in job; “cognitive demands” refers to effort in attention, decision-making, problem solving; and “emotional demands” covers stress and affective experiences at work. On the other hand, job resources are categorised as “physical resources” including opportunities such as equipment, facilities, and budget, while “organisational resources” describes management, cooperation with others, and participation in decision-making [20]. According to the interactional structure of J-DR, an adequate quantity and quality of resources positively affect employees’ motivation and performance, whereas pressure and stress caused by demands have a negative effect such as burnout and exhaustion [21]. Demerouti et al. [22] report that job demands have primarily relationship with exhaustion dimension of burn out while lack of resources have relationship with disengagement at job. During the Covid-19 pandemic, job demands found strongly correlated with initial exhaustion stage of burnout while pandemic-specific resources associated with burnout in teachers [23]. In the meta-analysis by Alorcon [24], on the other hand, it was reported that lower adaptive organizational attitudes are related with burnout, arised from high job demands and insufficient job resources.

1.2 Research gap

Van Droogenbroeck and Spruyt [25] found that exhaustion levels varied according to J-DR factors in seven different professions, including teaching. Drawing on this fact, the differences between structures of different work fields may cause varieties in J-DR and display features specific to the field. Physical education (PE), which involves job demands such as movement, sport development, and special ability, can be considered to have a unique teaching environment compared to other teaching fields in addition to different characteristics in resources such as the classroom environment, arrangements, and teaching materials. Along with the equipment, budget, facilities [26], intra/extra-curricular practices, unique classroom climate, and movement-based content may cause differences in J-DR and psychological factors (burnout, motivation, disengagement etc.) in PE teaching experiences. Studies reported that mattering of PE and being perceived as dispensable class affect teachers’ role stress, emotional exhaustion and marginalization in professional processes [27, 28]. On the other hand, Covid-19 pandemic brought up-to-date changes, demands and needs in PE specific environment such as need of tangible support, plans for curricular changes, new student-teacher relationships, uncertainty and emotional labor that affect PE teachers’ well-being and emotional fragility [29]. In the light of all, while burnout among teachers generally entails a risk for professional continuity, it is also important to investigate teaching field specific factors behind burnout to improve specific implications and actions in accordance with unique environment of PE field. Therefore, research needs to investigate teaching field specific factors with structured theoretical grounds and methodological basis.

The literature includes a number of studies on PE teachers’ professional socio-psychological conditions and burnout [e.g. 30–32]. However, there is a limited number of studies examining J-DR model in PE teaching related with burnout, although the model has a unique multi-dimensional framework and up to date perspective [e.g. 20, 33]. Zhang [33] states that the J-DR model can offer a well-organised and reasonable framework to examine PE teachers’ professional environment. In this respect, both the systematic structure of J-DR and the fact that it defines the professional circle with a multi-dimensional perspective may directly contribute to practical implications by describing substantial psycho-social factors and lacks in professional environment. In addition, due to the dominance of either quantitative or qualitative methods, the use of mixed methods that can provide a pluralistic methodological basis is rather limited in the literature [e.g. 30–32]. However, mixed method studies may provide to understand factors behind burnout in PE teaching environment with a broader sense and strong methodological basis that may contribute to the theoretical studies and educational implications. The aim of the present study was to examine job burnout among PE teachers on the basis of J-DR model and mixed method design.

1.3 Research questions

As the present study was designed on the basis of mixed method-sequential explanatory design, the main problem of the study was specified in accordance with quantitative and qualitative phases as follow: “What are linkages between job demands-resources and burnout in PE teaching?” Based on the main problem, sub-questions of the research were specified as follow:

What are job resources that linked with PE teachers’ burnout experiences?

What are job demands that linked with PE teachers’ burnout experiences?

2 Materials and method

2.1 Research model

The mixed method-sequential explanatory design [34] sets the methodological basis of the study, which follows a two-step process; the data obtained from quantitative methods were explained and expanded by associating with qualitative methods. The study was epistemologically based on pragmatism, which claims that different types of knowledge should be implemented according to practices in life, and appropriate data types and tools should be employed accordingly [35]. The role of pragmatism in mixed-methods research is related with the search for ways of receiving knowledge by acting appropriately with the nature of a scientific problem [36]. On an ontological basis of pragmatism, the truth is consistently renegotiated and debated in accordance with practical usefulness and the study assumes that truth is observation-based and objective, but individuals’ subjective opinions, perceptions, and experiences also reflect the realities in the external world [34].

2.2 Sampling and study group

While specifying quantitative sample size, G*Power statistical programme was used to represent population validly. The quantitative size of the sample was determined as n = 101, the significance of the difference between two dependent groups was determined by t-test while the effect size indicator was taken as 0.25, with 80% power and 0.05 significance level [37]. In addition, the assumption criteria for canonical correlation analysis was taken into account that number of samples should be 20 times greater than the number of total variables (n = 8) in the study. In this regard, simple random sampling was used in the quantitative dimension, and e-mails were sent to 256 teachers from 94 schools located in 39 randomly selected cities in Turkey. A total of 191 teachers from 62 different schools in 28 different cities responded to the invitation. The response rate of teachers were calculated as % 74.61 (n = 191 out of 256). The final sample consisted of 173 teachers after exclusion of outliers and biased data.

Purposeful maximum variation sampling was used in the qualitative phase [38], which aims to include various characteristics of a population to prevent bias [35]. In this regard, sampling was applied to ensure representation of different characteristics of sample considering all seven regions in Turkey, school locations, gender, age, professional experience, educational level, and number of students. Fourteen PE teachers participated in semi-structured interviews of qualitative phase. In addition to considering maximum variation of sample characteristics, saturation was provided considering repeated expressions of PE teachers while no additional data were found to emerge new codes and categories [39, 40].

2.3 Ethics, data collection, and procedures

Upon receiving permission to use scales from corresponding authors via email, ethical approval was obtained from Ege University’s Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Protocol no. 369). Data collection e-surveys and interview forms include the study ID, instructions, ethics, consent, demographic form, and questionnaires. Data collection was conducted between October and December 2020 in the quantitative phase and between February and May 2021 in the qualitative phase. Questions included in the semi-structured interview [38] were developed by researchers based on the research problem, methodology, and theoretical framework. However, additional questions were also asked according to teacher discourses during the semi-structured interviews. Interviews held as video-meetings by the second researcher were recorded. Each interview was observed by the other two researchers to evaluate consistency and examined for course of interview, paths taken, and standardisation [41]. Additional interviews were held before and after qualitative analyses to have transcripts read and confirmed, get deep information-feedback and ask for addition-exclusion by teachers.

2.4 Instruments

2.4.1 Demographic information form

The form included descriptions about gender, age, professional experience, region, city, number of students, educational level of school, number of PE teachers at school, and administrative positions.

2.4.2 Job demands-resources scale for physical education teachers

Zhang and Chen [20] developed the scale to examine J-DR in PE teaching, and the scale was adapted to the Turkish language by Engür et al. [42]. The scale consists of 21 items and 5 dimensions: physical resources [3 items], organisational resources [6 items], cognitive demands [4 items], emotional demands [4 items], and physical demands [4 items]. The items on the 5-point Likert type scale are responded to as “completely disagree: 1” to “completely agree: 5”. According to psychometric measurement results, reliability coefficients were calculated between .62 and .74. Fit indices were found as ²/DF=1.62, RMSEA = 0.050, SRMR = 0.070, CFI = 0.90, GFI = 0.91, and IFI = 0.90 [42].

2.4.3 Maslach burnout inventory (education)

The inventory was developed for teachers by Maslach and colleagues [14, 43] and adapted to the Turkish language by İnce and Şahin [44]. It consists of 22 items, a 7-point Likert construct (“0 = never” to “6 = always”), and three sub-scales: emotional exhaustion [9 items], depersonalisation [5 items], and personal accomplishment [8 items]. Internal consistency coefficients ranged between.74 and.88. Fit indices were calculated as x²/DF=4.30, RMSEA = 0.07, CFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.93, GFI = 0.87, and AGFI = 0.84. The burnout level increases with increased scores on emotional exhaustion (max. 54 points) and depersonalisation (max. 30 points) and decreased scores on personal accomplishment (max. 48 points) [44].

2.4.4 Semi-structured interviews

The semi-structured interview form to identify the participants’ opinions, perceptions, and experiences [38] included information about consent, ethics, study ID, demographic data, and questions. In order to achieve consistency [39], pre-specified steps were followed for such concerns as the standardisation of interviews in asking questions, settings, and participant–researcher interaction. Moreover, questions were developed in relation to the theoretical model and research problem to achieve content validity and consistency [45] (Table 1). In addition to the main questions presented in Table 1, specific follow-up and probing questions were asked to obtain more clear, varied, and in-depth information [46].

Table 1
Semi-structured interview: Main questions

Question Nu.

Q1 How could you explain your experiences regarding to professional burnout ?

Q2 How could you explain effects of job resources on professional burnout?

Q3 How could you explain effects of job demands on professional burnout?

Question Nu.
Q1	How could you explain your experiences regarding to professional burnout ?
Q2	How could you explain effects of job resources on professional burnout?
Q3	How could you explain effects of job demands on professional burnout?

2.5 Data analysis

Quantitative data were analysed using the G*Power Statistical programme and IBM^® SPSS 21.0 programme. Eighteen participants were excluded due to unanswered questions, contradictions, and outliers. Exclusion criteria for outliers were z scores beyond±3.29 for univariates and significance of Mahalanobis values for multivariate outliers [47]. Canonical correlation was conducted for quantitative data to estimate multidimensional relations and weights of the sub-scales including total of eight variables as follow physical resources, organizational resources, cognitive demands, emotional demands, physical demands, emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and personal accomplishment [48]. Canonical correlation, which examines relational spirals in a holistic way and controls type-1 errors, reduces the risk of accepting insignificant relations as significant [49]. While considering assumptions, the number of samples to be analysed (173) was ensured to be at least 20 times greater than the number of total variables (n = 8) in the study [50]. In addition, multicollinearity was tested [51], and it was found that all correlation coefficients were lower than .80 and had tolerance values greater than .10 and VIF values smaller than 10. Statistical significance was evaluated considering Wilk’s Lambda, chi square, and effect sizes. The contribution rate of variables to the canonical pairs was determined with linear and cross-canonical loadings as well as the rate of variance explained and redundancy analysis [47].

In qualitative data analysis, several trustworthiness techniques were applied to provide validity and reliability. Methodological triangulation was firstly used involving the use of quantitative and qualitative methods together [52]. Moreover, transcripts were examined by participant teachers both before and after analysis, and confirmation was obtained by repeating the interviews (prolonged engagement, member checking/informant feedback/peer debriefing) for accuracy of data and any changes [38]. Multiple researchers (investigator triangulation) participated in the data analysis [53], and inter-coder reliability was employed in coding [45]. Transferability was provided by describing the process and sampling/sample characteristics in detail[41].

Constant comparative analysis was conducted, which involves three steps (open coding, axial coding, and selective coding) [53]. The open coding in the first step was conducted by two blinded researchers, and one of the researchers previously examined quantitative findings, while findings were not shown to the other researcher. Thus, risk of bias that might be caused by knowledge about pre-results was controlled with checking researcher effect/bias [38]. The inter-coder reliability [45] score was calculated as .84 over open coding. Contradictory codes were resolved in a joint meeting participated in by the third researcher. In the axial coding, the categories were abstracted into general themes, and inter-thematic relationships were evaluated. The researchers conducted repeated readings on the expressions and categories in this process and grouped the categories under themes according to significance and integrity. In addition, integrity of the categories and themes was compared with the J-DR model and structure of Maslach’s Burnout. The selective coding step identified the core and remarkable themes and inter-thematic relationships at final. Within the scope of the sequential explanatory design, findings were reported through comparison with the quantitative data, association, exemplification, verification, or falsification, and objectivity was achieved [34]. “Informed grounded theory” [54, 55] was used in all steps of constant comparative analysis similar to Zhang’s [33] study by comparing obtained categories and themes with the existing theoretical framework constantly. The process was finalised by searching for negative cases and making contrast comparisons [38].

3 Results

Considering demographic variables in quantitative phase, PE teachers were distributed as 32.9% (n = 57) female, 67.1% (n = 116) male and 49.7% (n = 86) of teachers work at secondary schools while 50.3% (n = 87) of teachers work at high schools. Seventeen teachers (9.82%) were in administrative position at their school as they reported. According to school location variable, participant PE teachers’ schools were distributed as % 54.34 (n = 94) urban schools, 24.27% (n = 42) district schools and 21.39% (n = 37) rural schools. The average school size (number of students at school) was $\bar{X} = 659.98$ (SD = 452.59). The age of the teachers was calculated as $\bar{X} = 38.14$ (SD = 9.06) (from 26 to 60) and professional experiences as $\bar{X} = 12.84$ (SD = 9.15) years. Examining descriptive statistics in the J-DR dataset, mean values distributed as physical demands ( $\bar{X} = 3.57$ ±.77), emotional demands ( $\bar{X} = 3.02$ ±.81), cognitive demands ( $\bar{X} = 2.64$ ±.81), physical resources ( $\bar{X} = 2.58$ ±1.02) and organizational resources ( $\bar{X} = 3.42$ ±.65). Besides, mean values in the burnout dataset were found as emotional exhaustion ( $\bar{X} = 2.10$ ±.97), depersonalization ( $\bar{X} = 2.76$ ±.93) and personal accomplishment ( $\bar{X} = 2.36$ ±.86) (Table 2).

Table 2
Descriptive statistics of quantitative study group

Variable

Gender Female (n,%) Male (n,%)

57 (32.9%) 116 (67.1%)

School Level Secondary (n,%) High School (n,%)

86 (49.7%) 87 (50.3%)

Administrative Available (n,%) Nonavailable (n,%)

Position 17 (9.82%) 156 (90.18%)

School location: Urban(n,%) District (n, %) Rural (n, %)

Urban/District/Rural 94(54.34%) 42(24.27%) 37(21.39%)

Region Aegean Black Sea Central Anatolia Eastern Anatolia Marmara Mediterranean Southeastern Anatolia

46 (26.59%) 15 (8.67%) 26 (15.03%) 20 (11.56%) 33 (19.08%) 18 (10.40%) 15 (8.67%)

Mean ( $\bar{X}$ ) SD (±)

Age 38.14 9.06

Professional experience 12.84 9.15

App. Number of Student at School 659.98 452.59

Number of PE teachers at School 3.21 2.31

J-DR

Physical Demands 3.57 .77

Emotional Demands 3.02 .81

Cognitive Demands 2.64 .81

Physical Resources 2.58 1.02

Organizational Resources 3.43 .65

Burnout

Emotional Exhaustion 2.10 .97

Depersonalization 2.76 .93

Personal Accomplishment 2.36 .86

Variable
Gender	Female (n,%)			Male (n,%)
	57 (32.9%)			116 (67.1%)
School Level	Secondary (n,%)			High School (n,%)
	86 (49.7%)			87 (50.3%)
Administrative	Available (n,%)			Nonavailable (n,%)
Position	17 (9.82%)			156 (90.18%)
School location:	Urban(n,%)	District (n, %)	Rural (n, %)
Urban/District/Rural	94(54.34%)	42(24.27%)	37(21.39%)
Region	Aegean	Black Sea	Central Anatolia	Eastern Anatolia	Marmara	Mediterranean	Southeastern Anatolia
	46 (26.59%)	15 (8.67%)	26 (15.03%)	20 (11.56%)	33 (19.08%)	18 (10.40%)	15 (8.67%)
		Mean ( $\bar{X}$ )		SD (±)
Age		38.14		9.06
Professional experience		12.84		9.15
App. Number of Student at School		659.98		452.59
Number of PE teachers at School		3.21		2.31
J-DR
Physical Demands		3.57		.77
Emotional Demands		3.02		.81
Cognitive Demands		2.64		.81
Physical Resources		2.58		1.02
Organizational Resources		3.43		.65
Burnout
Emotional Exhaustion		2.10		.97
Depersonalization		2.76		.93
Personal Accomplishment		2.36		.86

In the qualitative phase, fourteen teachers that participated to interviews distributed as 7 male (50%), 7 female (50%) according to gender variable. Seven teachers (50.0%) from urban schools, 4 teachers from rural schools schools (28.57%) and 3 teachers from district schools (21.43%) participated in the study. The school level where teachers work distributed as secondary schools (n = 7, 50%), high schools (n = 7, 50%). Fourteen teachers were equally distributed to all seven regions Turkey which is equivalent to 2 teachers (14.29%) per a region. The age of the teachers in qualitative phase was calculated as $\bar{X} = 40.21$ (SD = 10.94) while professional experience as $\bar{X} = 14.29$ (SD = 9.41) (Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive characteristics of qualitative study group

table>

^*Teacher 13 has administrative position at his school.

Considering canonical correlation analysis results, the Wilk’s Lambda and chi square values, which were calculated considering the lowest number of variables in the dataset clusters, showed that all three canonical functions were statistically significant (p < .05) (Table 3). However, in order to interpret significant functions, the minimum correlation coefficient must be .30 and the explained variance .10 [47, 56]. Based on this criterion, despite being statistically significant (Wilk’s λ = .928, χ2[3] = 12.428, p < .05), the third function was excluded from analysis due to insufficient correlation coefficient and explained variance (Rc = .267 - Rc² = .071). On the other hand, the first (Wilk’s λ = .629, χ2[15] = 77.786, p < .05) and second (Wilk’s λ = .796, χ2[8] = 38.280, p < .05) functions were evaluated, as they showed compatibility with the criterion (Table 4).

Table 4

Canonical correlation results
Teacher Nu.	Gender	Age	Experience	Region	City	Urban/District/Rural	Educational level	App. number of student
1	M	38	13	Marmara	İstanbul	District	High School	700
2	F	53	30	Marmara	İstanbul	Urban	High School	1500
3	F	33	9	Aegean	İzmir	Urban	Secondary	500
4	M	45	20	Aegean	İzmir	Urban	High School	590
5	M	38	13	Black Sea	Bartın	Rural	Secondary	230
6	F	39	13	Black Sea	Bartın	Rural	Secondary	135
7	M	56	27	Central Anatolia	Ankara	Urban	Secondary	1100
8	F	49	19	Central Anatolia	Ankara	Urban	Secondary	1800
9	M	42	16	Mediterranean	Antalya	Urban	High School	1200
10	F	59	27	Mediterranean	Antalya	Urban	High School	750
11	F	27	2	Eastern Anatolia	Erzurum	District	High School	150
12	M	27	3	Eastern Anatolia	Erzurum	District	High School	108
13^*	M	29	4	Southeastern Anatolia	Şanlıurfa	Rural	Secondary	284
14	F	28	4	Southeastern Anatolia	Gaziantep	Rural	Secondary	180

Canonical function	λ	χ ²	df	p	(R_c)	R_c²
U1 – V1	.629	77.786	15.000	.000	.458	.209
U2 – V2	.796	38.280	8.000	.000	.378	.143
U3 – V3	.928	12.428	3.000	.006	.267	.071

Canonical and cross loadings were analysed to examine the contribution of variables to the first and second canonical functions. In this regard, cognitive demands (R_c=-.841; R_cCross=-.385) and organizational resources (R_c = .319; R_cCross = .146) among the set 1 variables were found to be correlated with set 2, while the variables of personal accomplishment (R_c = .319; R_cCross = .146) and depersonalisation (R_c = .545; R_cCross = .250) in set 2 were found to be correlated with set 1 in the first canonical function. Explained variance and redundancy values were estimated as 17% and 4% for set 1 and 28% and 6% for set 2, respectively. The total canonical correlation coefficient was calculated as R_c = .458 (Table 5, Fig. 1).

Table 5

Canonical, cross canonical loadings and redundancy analysis

Datasets	U1 – V1		U2 – V2
	R_c	Cross R_c	R_c	Cross R_c
Set 1: J-DR
Physical Demands	.069	.032	.429	.162
Emotional Demands	-.171	-.078	.811	.307
Cognitive Demands	-.841	-.385	.228	.086
Physical Resources	-.026	-.012	-.567	-.214
Organizational Resources	.319	.146	-.672	-.254
Set 2: Burnout
Emotional Exhaustion	.030	.014	.987	.373
Depersonalization	.545	.250	.230	.087
Personal Accomplishment	.737	.338	.676	.256
Redundancy	Set1	Set2	Set1	Set2
Explained Variance	.169	.280	.333	.494
Redundancy Index	.035	.059	.048	.071

Fig. 1

Function 1^st: Canonical correlation coefficients for set 1-set 2 variables.

In the second canonical function, emotional demands (R_c = .811; R_cCross = .307), organisational resources (R_c=-.672; R_cCross=-.254), physical resources (R_c=-.567; R_cCross=-.214) and physical demands (R_c = .429; R_cCross = .162) in set 1 were found to be correlated with and in set 2. In addition, emotional exhaustion (R_c = .987; R_cCross = .373) and personal accomplishment (R_c = .676; R_cCross = .256) in set 2 were found to correlate with set 1. Explained variance and redundancy values were estimated as 33%, 5% for set 1 and 49%, 7% for set 2, respectively. The canonical correlation coefficient was calculated as R_c = . 378. (Table 5, Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Second function: Canonical correlation coefficients for set 1-set 2 variables.

The model pertaining to the inter-thematic linkages obtained from qualitative data is presented in Fig. 3. Teachers’ expressions concerning burnout condition included such expressions as “I am affected emotionally”, “I feel unsuccessful”, and “I want to be appointed to another school”. In this respect, the categories of emotional exhaustion, personal accomplishment, and depersonalisation included in Maslach’s dimensions were reflected similarly. Teachers’ expressions regarding the themes pertaining to the J-DR and burnout experiences are reported in this section.

Fig. 3

Qualitative analysis model summary. Footnote: Green lines indicate confirmed relations in quantitative and qualitative model.

Varied Burnout Experiences: Expressions indicate that a common burnout state is not available and that concerning burnout experiences are varied. The expressions coming out under the theme “varied burnout experiences” consist of three categories: “not experiencing burnout”, “I am not burned out, but ... ”, and “indeed burned out”.

Teacher 1: “I don’t feel burnout because I love my job. I go to work every day valuing my job. My passion for sports started at an early age, and I can say that I would be a PE teacher if I were born again. There are, of course, impossibilities at the school, but I try to find a solution by doing my best. I don’t give up. Insufficiency of resources is actually like the thorns of a rose.”

Teacher 4: “I don’t feel burned out professionally, but there are times that challenges make me tired. If we focus on impossibilities, they are countless, unfortunately. Even if I get tired on the way, I try to find solutions.”

Teacher 12: “I work at a school where I can answer this question sincerely. I can say that I experience job burnout literally.”

Physical resources: Within the context of PE classes, teachers defined the main problem as the physical resources and stated that their professional efficiency would increase if they had better opportunities. In addition, they reported that educational-sport activities are affected negatively, and their sense of personal accomplishment decreased because of a lack of physical resources. Making a personal effort to meet these resources emerged as a reason for emotional exhaustion too. Remarkable categories of physical resources include the equipment, sports facilities, field adequacy, budget, means of transport, and seasonal conditions.

Teacher 13: “Finding a ball is more valuable than finding treasure. I bought four balls from my own budget last year, but they were torn because of the rough floor surface. Also, Urfa is a very hot city; when the sun is up, it is extremely bothering, and we can’t have classes. If we had better opportunities, I believe we could have more effective lessons.”

Teacher 7: “The sport budget has been removed, so our equipment supply has decreased. When we apply to the administration, no material support comes. Another problem about the school’s conditions is the problem of the field. The garden of the school I teach at is too small. Sometimes all students go out to the garden at the same time, and unmanageable chaos occurs.”

Teacher 14: “We have our lessons inside the classroom for six months because of the long winter season. It is hard to have PE lessons in a classroom, and you can’t have the students do what you want, as the classes are too small, so they naturally get bored. Materials that we can use to make the lesson more active are also rather limited. Under these conditions, you feel worthless and unhappy as a PE teacher.”

Teacher 9: “There is a troubling search for sport equipment, facilities, and budget. Also, the climate in the region I work is considerably hot; when we hold our training classes in the school garden, the students get unwilling; they say, ‘Teacher, let’s not run or move; it is too hot’, or as another simple example, when a student is running to score a goal, another teacher or student passes by the field and preventing him/her while enjoying.”

Teacher 3: “When transportation is not provided by the school for competitions, I paid out of my own pocket. Dealing with such issues decreases my energy.”

Organisational resources: Organisational factors include the approaches of the administration, parents, and colleagues; underestimation of PE; obstacles to school sports; support for PE teachers and student athletes; academic achievement-centred education; and support from the Ministry of Education. Organisational resources were seen to cause emotional exhaustion, decreased sense of professional accomplishment, and depersonalisation.

Teacher 11: “Education is considered to consist of language, math, and science classes. Students see my lesson like a free class, which only involves playing, going around, or chatting. I got so tired while trying to change these perceptions on PE, and I said to myself, I wish I had chosen a different branch, as I couldn’t reach my professional goals.”

Teacher 4: “Since I work at a school with a high academic achievement level, it is quite difficult to carry out school sports and be successful. For example, I can hardly find seven athletes to set up a volleyball team. Families want their children to give up sports especially in the exam year.”

Teacher 10: “When we join sport competitions, the administration oppresses us by asking, ‘Why aren’t you in the class?’ When I say I am in competitions, they warn me to give priority to the lessons. Some friends have been investigated because of this; you feel helpless to perform your profession unavoidably.”

Teacher 3: “The academic achievement level of our school is low. I cope with the students’ disruptive behaviour and work to make them participate in sport and health activities to prevent them from gaining bad habits. But for other teachers, a student-athlete who ‘does not study falls behind in classes.’ Because of such approaches, problems occur in giving permission for matches and trainings. We spend the time we need to focus on our job solving such problems.”

Teacher 5: “Unfortunately, we have the tendency to prepare students for exams as if they were racehorses. In a council meeting, teachers even came up with a suggestion to decrease PE hours to increase academic achievement.”

Teacher 7: “When I gave an exam, parents came and complained by saying, ‘Our teachers gave us a ball to play in this lesson’ or ‘What’s an exam in PE class?’ They ask us to increase exam scores of students.”

Teacher 8: “I conduct sports activities to contribute to my students. But when administrators ignore my effort and say, ‘There is no need for such activities. Let’s not do it’, it makes me upset.”

Teacher 12: “Because we wear tracksuits, we hear comments from colleagues like ‘This man came to school in his pyjamas’. I can say that this is a teasing and humiliating attitude.”

Socio-cultural resources: Socio-cultural factors within the school and environment were seen as effective in terms of teachers’ efficiency and emotional experiences. In this respect, the socio-cultural profile of the school, the place of the family in student education, gender inequalities, and the socio-cultural profile of region were found remarkable.

Teacher 3: “There are students who are subjected to domestic violence in my school; I really feel sorry for them rather than myself. It is so hard to change the children’s background, family structures. Then, I can’t teach and accomplish because of focusing on the student’s problems all the time. It is very tiring to try to explain everything to the student from scratch. If I worked at a better school, I could be more efficient and motivated. However, I haven’t been able to get a chance to work at a school with a good student profile for 10 years because of the service score system.”

Teacher 14: “When you want to change children’s behaviour patterns they learnt in the past, they can’t accept it. Perspective toward PE and school and the fact that they don’t have goals naturally affect my lessons. The lack of support to students from their parents and the lives that children lead in this region cause me to experience burnout emotionally.”

Teacher 11: “The perception of the social circle at the school I work at is wearing me down. Especially, the circle has a great effect on girls. I took our girl students to a tournament for the first time in my own right here, and I thought we broke the taboos. However, while I was planning to choreograph for a national ceremony last year, the other teachers said we would not be able to participate in the group meeting. As the ceremony would take place in the square, (they said) parents wouldn’t approve it, girls couldn’t do somersaults in a square, couldn’t perform folk dances. So, I ask myself what I am struggling for. Excluding the girls, forbidding sports as if it is shameful or sinful upsets me. As a result, I say if I went to another city, another school, I would have less problems, I can realise what I want to do there. What tires and exhausts me is such concerns because you can never change the social circle.”

Paperwork and bureaucracy demands: Since PE classes are of a practical nature, teachers reported that it would be more efficient not to give up time on theory and paperwork for more practical activities. Paperwork and bureaucracy were seen as related to cognitive and emotional demands and could play a role in the sense of decreased professional accomplishment. Busy correspondence-paperwork, data entry, annual lesson plans, and daily forms are the categories composing these demands.

Teacher 10: “I spend half an hour on paperwork for a two-hour class. Such an amount of paper both tires and prevents me from sparing time for teaching. As PE is a practical course, I want to be in the practical field. Wouldn’t it be better if we could spare the time for teaching instead of spending it on unnecessary tasks? I think it is more important to familiarise the students with sport and keep them away from bad habits than paperwork. What I need to focus on is to discover if the child has an ability or to make him love sports. In addition, we have to go so many places and get permission, write letters that if you spend the energy on the lesson or training, would be more efficient.”

Teacher 5: “Documents of professional development meetings may arrive after days, and correspondence times may be prolonged. You are going to attend a training, but you can’t go because you haven’t received a permission letter on time.”

Teacher 2: “I have no regret for any one moment I spend for my students. It would be no problem if you put the effort to increase the students’ abilities or sport activities instead of paperwork, but conducting correspondence, filling out lesson forms, sport club files, and annual lesson plans seem to be a waste of time.”

Student-related demands: Demands emerging from interaction with students create pressure on both cognitive and affective domains and are seen to be associated with emotional exhaustion and decreased professional accomplishment. Student-related demands came out in the categories of low readiness, undesirable behaviour, negative interactions, generation gaps, and attitudes to PE.

Teacher 11: “I aim to teach basic things like positioning exercises to students, but in a class of 20 students, only three or four of them can perform. Students have no previous experience of running, jumping, or sports branch. Dealing with a student who did not even do a basic forward somersault before high school prevents me from achieving the course objectives. Sometimes I question myself as to whether I teach wrongly, and I revise my teaching method. If I go down to the secondary school level, it is too low. I don’t know how to explain or where to start. This questioning, of course, affects my professional accomplishment, self-confidence, and mood.”

Teacher 3: “The students at the school have problem behaviour, they don’t speak without swearing, and they are always violent towards each other. I feel stressed while trying to fix these undesirable behaviours; I give up my job and start to act like a warden. I feel like I have forgotten my own abilities because of dealing with problems.”

Teacher 5: “As a problem of our era, cooperation among students has decreased considerably. Mobile phones, the Internet, and games ... Everything happens individually. I feel unsuccessful in teaching students such behaviour as socialising, solidarity, and effort, which mainly form PE.”

Teacher 8: “Personally, I have some problems in communicating with Generation Z. I think they are closed to communication. They like spending individual time and living inside themselves. You can see the social degeneration in schools very clearly. As a teacher, this degeneration disturbs me especially in emotional terms and sometimes causes conflicts with students.”

Teacher 13: “I am not exaggerating: the children in the region do not know their right and left when they come to secondary school. We start everything from the beginning, we can’t teach the curriculum, and we always fall behind.”

Pandemic-related demands: Mentioning the difficulties caused by COVID-19, the teachers point out cognitive demands such as theoretical content and teaching method arrangements. In addition, it is stated that the decreased learning/teaching motivation in this period caused emotional demands and burnout. In this regard, theoretical content demands in PE, psychological exhaustion, new content/teaching method demands, and low teaching/learning motivation categories emerged.

Teacher 2: “As the nature of our profession is movement, contact, and practice, we got tired of presenting theoretical information on COVID-19. Ours is a branch of one-to-one contact, so it is difficult to set the child in motion without interacting with him/her in online teaching. We can’t do our job properly in this period, and the pandemic also has challenging psychological effects on burnout. I can say I feel suffocated.”

Teacher 8: “There are some negative feelings I have experienced in the pandemic. I feel incompetent, especially in online classes. Online courses are really challenging in terms of practice. Our branch is not an understandable one when explained theoretically; even if we try to teach with visual materials to make it understandable, students get bored too. My mood is naturally affected negatively.”

Teacher 12: “In distance education, we can’t use practical methods that we often use in PE classes like demonstration/acting out. When we try to discuss a theoretical subject, student attitudes develop negatively. There are teachers who say humiliating things like ‘Do you have the students do push-ups on the screen?’ in a teasing manner, underestimating our job and PE.”

4 Discussion

The relationship spiral between the J-DR and burnout datasets showed that cognitive demands and organizational resources have a relationship with personal accomplishment and depersonalization in the first canonical function. Besides, emotional demands, organizational resources, physical resources and physical demands were found to be correlated with emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment in the second canonical function. Explanatory qualitative results confirmed the obtained results in quantitative phase except for physical demands. In this regard, organizational resources, physical resources, cognitive and emotional demands were found as a influential factors in emotional exhaustion, personal accomplishment and depersonalization in accordance with teachers’ expressions. On the other hand, there were depth, new and causal explanatory knowledge in our theoretical framework that occurred in qualitative analysis with new themes and categories such as socio-cultural resources, paper-work and bureaucracy demands, student-related demands and pandemic-related demands that are influential on burnout states.

Physical resources were evaluated as an effective and important resource dimension in PE teachers’ burnout as the main factors that hinder sustainability and effective teaching in PE classes are related with such physical resources as equipment and facilities [57, 58]. In fact, teachers working in schools with improved physical resources have higher job satisfaction and lower burnout [59]. Similarly, the present study showed that a lack of physical resources was related to both a decreased sense of professional accomplishment and emotional exhaustion. The branch-specific physical resources, on the other hand, were observed to consist of equipment, facilities, sufficiency of the field, budget, seasonal conditions, and means of transport. Teachers reported that they could create a more successful PE environment if they had broader physical facilities, while their individual efforts to meet demands wore them out. Zhang [33] reported that a lack of physical resources prevented reaching learning standards, and teachers had to make individual effort to eliminate a lack of physical resources.

Abos et al. [60] highlight that approaches and uncertainties of the school administration, a lack of parent engagement, and undesirable student behaviours are related with burnout in PE teachers. Moreover, in addition to the low status attributed to PE, limited colleagues’ support may also affect the lesson and teachers negatively [57]. Disagreements between colleagues’ and parents’ expectations of PE lessons and the ideal framework of the course put teachers into role conflict [61]. In this respect, conflicts and negative experiences resulting from the dilemma created by the teacher–trainer role may adversely affect teachers’ stress levels in the organisational environment [62]. While our findings are consistent with these studies in terms of organisational resources, the specific findings of our study showed that the sense of personal accomplishment and emotional exhaustion were related with PE specific organizational factors such as underestimation of PE, obstacles to school sports, an academic achievement-centred system, and support for student athletes and teachers.

Our findings supported dimensions of physical and organisational resources included in previous J-DR studies in PE [20, 33]. However, socio-cultural resources are additionally considered as a novel dimension in our study. In fact, such factors as the place of the family in students’ education [60], gender inequalities, and the socio-cultural profile (out) of schools have been observed to affect teachers’ burnout. From a PE-specific perspective, it is important to consider the position of sports in the dominant culture and the value attributed to it, as well as the approaches to sports and gender. Aboagye et al. [63] report that teachers’ burnout levels display inter-cultural differences. Although a sample from Turkey has common socio-cultural characteristics, it can be considered that the differences of the sub-groups by maximum variation sampling might have affected the emergence of the socio-cultural resources. Thus, it could be suggested that teacher burnout may be affected by the micro socio-cultural differences within the same area.

It is seen that paperwork and bureaucracy demands in connection with cognitive demands and student-related factors in connection with emotional and cognitive demands create pressure on teachers. Zhang [33] reported that integration demands of theoretical courses with PE curriculum put pressure on teachers that may be related with cognitive and unpractical tasks. The same study also indicates that the excessive content knowledge included in the curriculum causes an increase in demands. In addition, Van Droogenbroeck et al. [64] remark that excessive paperwork out of teaching demands plays a role in job burnout. Our findings also indicated that student-related factors such as readiness, undesirable behaviour, negative communication, attitudes to PE, and generation gap have an effect on burnout related with cognitive and emotional demands. The original construct of the J-DR scale for PE [20] similarly includes demands such as undesirable behaviour, efforts for student motivation, and effort for promoting a healthy life style in students. Zhang [33] states that a lack of equipment and large class sizes cause difficulty for teachers in struggling with students’ undesirable behaviours and increase demands concerning class management. In addition, our findings showed that analyses and professional-pedagogical trainings on generation gaps are important for both pre-service and in-service teachers [65] to prepare them for challenges in teaching and communication with new generations.

Teachers expressed that pandemic-related factors create pressure on emotional and cognitive demands. Similarly, Sokal et al. [66] report that there has been a gradual increase in teachers’ negative attitudes to varying cognitive and emotional demands in the teaching environment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Kotowski et al. [67] also reports that teachers’ stress and burnout increased in pandemic period. Additionally, Varea et al. [68] state that PE teachers have had difficulty in rearranging their classes according to COVID-19 conditions. The same study also indicates that online PE classes that do not include physical encounter are unusual, and the process has caused a pedagogical shift for PE teachers [68]. The teachers emphasise that their classes should be held face to face to avoid becoming meaningless, and it has been reported that professional stress and disappointments increased in online education [69]. Although the main reasons of the findings in both the literature and our study were related to the pandemic period, it is plausible that new teaching demands that emerged during the pandemic may be transferred to the post-pandemic period. Therefore, the effects of new demands that emerged during the pandemic on PE teachers must be examined in the future.

5 Conclusion, recommendations and implications

Burnout among PE teachers based on the J-DR model examined in the present study by a sequential explanatory design. The quantitative data drew a general framework about the relationship between J-DR and burnout, while qualitative data offered in-depth and explanatory knowledge on research problem, in addition to confirming quantitative relations, except for physical demands. Results were evaluated as important in revealing burnout factors specific to J-DR in the PE field. Therefore, in addition to general frameworks in J-DR and teaching, it is recommended that PE-specific J-DR should be mainly considered when examining and enhancing implications for PE teachers’ professional life. PE teachers’ burnout experiences appear to be related with physical, organisational, and socio-cultural resources. As for demands, it has been shown that the paperwork and bureaucracy requirements, which are far from the nature of PE, as well as online education during the pandemic have created pressure in cognitive and emotional demands. Student-related factors causing a burden on the efficiency of teaching processes, workload, and teachers’ emotional stress affect burnout through cognitive and emotional demands.

The limitations of our study should be considered while evaluating results and conducting future research. In this regard, our results are limited to a sample of Turkish PE teachers; however, a qualitatively and quantitatively wide research group was included using simple random and maximum variation sampling which represents qualifications of PE teachers’ working environment irrespective of culture of the sample. In addition, our results and emerging theoretical model showed high conformity with current international studies [20, 33] increases the external validity of the findings. This study should also be considered as limited with the framework of Maslachs’ Burnout and the J-DR model. It is recommended to conduct future research in different theoretical models to understand burnout factors in PE teaching. This study mainly investigated burnout in the working environment of PE teachers without considering sub-variables. However, burnout could be varied by socio-demographic and individual factors such as age, gender, smoking, individual work schedule, sleep quality, circadian rhythm and social life factors of workers [70]. Therefore, it is recommended for future studies to investigate socio-demographic, individual and social factors that may specifically affect PE teachers’ burnout.

The present study contributes to previous burnout studies in teaching by systematic methodological and theoretical design on the basis of J-DR model and mixed method sequential explanatory design. In addition, the study revealed PE teaching field specific burnout and J-DR factors by both relational and causal perspective which may have potential to improve implications and future studies in accordance with practical teaching field realities rather than over-generalized and usual theoretical frameworks. The detailed framework presented in the study concerning burnout and J-DR for PE should be taken into consideration by stakeholders of education to increase the quality of teaching and teachers’ professional life. It is recommended that real-life training should be offered to pre-service teachers on challenges about J-DR to be encountered in the practical field. Perceptions and approaches of the social circle (consisting of school administration, family, colleagues, and students) to PE must be improved with meaningful bridges to support PE teachers in professional environment. Teachers’ facilities, resources expected demands and teaching field specific factors should be considered while arrangements and policies are made in educational curricula, teaching profession circumstances and school organization. In addition, social circles and policy makers should pay attention to emerging matters in education such as pandemic related changes, generation gaps in schools and its effect on teaching processes. As our findings revealed PE specific categories related with J-DR, it is recommended to consider practical implications in accordance with unique structure of professional environment in PE field. In this regard, PE teaching environment should be arranged in accordance with adequate physical, organizational, socio-cultural resources. In service trainings and socio-organizational support for PE teachers may be beneficial to afford paper-work, pandemic related and student related demands in school environment. The J-DR framework that obtained in current study’s qualitative phase may have potential to contribute and re-consider existing J-DR model to adapt it into educational practice, teaching profession and teaching field specific sub-categories. Therefore, the present study gives rise to new questions and need of new studies to investigate J-DR model in different professional fields’ specific environment. Besides, further studies are recommended in different teaching fields to improve educational implications on the basis of teaching fields’ specific environment andJ-DR.

Ethical approval

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to applying the questionnaires and interviews including permission for publication.

Conflict of interest

The authors do not declare any conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all participant PE teachers for their contribution to the study.

Funding

The research received no funding.