Life satisfaction and time-use among full-time and part-time working mothers in Brazil

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Working part-time or full-time is a persistent dilemma for women, especially mothers, as they strive to manage their time across various roles. However, the existing literature remains unclear on whether part-time work contributes more to life satisfaction than full-time work.

OBJECTIVE:

This study aims to describe and compare time-use patterns in different occupational roles and levels of life satisfaction among 795 mothers in Brazil who are employed either part-time or full-time.

METHODS:

Data was collected through an online survey and the snowball technique. Regression and correlation analyses were performed on the data obtained from the following instruments: the Role Checklist for assessing time-use within occupational roles, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, and demographic information.

RESULTS:

Our analysis revealed no significant differences in life satisfaction between mothers working full-time and those working part-time (t (793)=1.160, p = 0.24). However, life satisfaction scores were positively correlated with the number of occupational roles performed (r = 0.222, p < 0.01), higher family income (P < 0.001), and engagement in social roles such as Friend (r = 0.106, p = 0.003), Hobbyist/Amateur (r = 0.08, p = 0.018), and Caregiver (r = 0.07, p = 0.026).

CONCLUSION:

While our society places significant emphasis on time spent at work, our findings highlight that life satisfaction extends far beyond the dichotomy of working part-time or full-time. There are deeper dimensions to consider, including the number of occupational roles, family income, and engagement in social roles, which have a more substantial impact on overall life satisfaction.

Keywords

Work family gender roles role women mothers

1 Introduction

Roles are commonly understood as a collection of behaviors carried out within a particular occupation [1]. Occupational roles encompass productive functions that are influenced by societal and individual expectations and can evolve over the course of one’s life [1, 2]. Examples of occupational roles include worker, family member, hobbyist, friend, and others [2].

Engagement in a role holds significance in an individual’s life as it contributes to the creation of personal meaning and identity, both for the individual and society [1, 3]. However, if the demands and responsibilities associated with a role become excessive or overwhelming, fulfilling that role can become burdensome for the individual [1 , 5]. This is due to the psychological and social implications of role involvement, which can impact people’s experiences positively or negatively [1 , 6].

Performing a role necessitates allocating time to fulfill its responsibilities, thereby influencing an individual’s daily routine, recognizing that time-use is a fundamental aspect around which everyday life is structured [1, 7]. Achieving a balance in time-use, also referred to as role balance by some authors, entails organizing one’s routine in a manner where the time dedicated to each role is perceived as satisfactory by the individual [5 –8]. Nevertheless, given that individuals have diverse needs and assume different roles throughout various stages of life, the attainment of time-use balance can vary among individuals and across different life spans [1 , 8].

Time-use studies play a crucial role in understanding lifestyle patterns and cultural norms. A study conducted by the World Bank, which analyzed data from 19 countries, revealed that women typically spend more time than men engaged in care activities and unpaid domestic work [9]. In the United States, research indicated that married mothers tend to allocate more time to housework [10], and individuals juggling multiple roles often experience increased fatigue and reduced happiness [11]. In Brazil, official data demonstrated that, on average, women devote nearly twice as many hours to caregiving and domestic chores compared to men. This gender gap has further widened worldwide during the COVID-19 pandemic, as women, particularly mothers, have had to reduce their work hours and increase their time spent on childcare and household tasks, resulting in lower levels of happiness [12].

These time-use dynamics are considered normative behaviors that exert a profound influence on women’s participation in the labor force and, more broadly, on gender equality within society [13, 14]. It is important to note that inequalities in time-use within the household often translate into gender gaps in the labor market [15 –17]. Presently, our society tends to structure our time-use and routines around the hours dedicated to employment [4 , 7]. Consequently, individuals often base decisions about their leisure time, waking and sleeping hours, and meal times— among other aspects— primarily on the demands of their work role. This situation poses a significant challenge in balancing time between work and non-work roles [4 , 18]. Some researchers argue that this challenge stems from the prevalence of long working hours and a cultural emphasis on work, which directly influences our understanding of time-use balance and even life satisfaction [19 –22]. Achieving time-use balance can be particularly challenging for mothers, as they are the ones who face the greatest struggle in reconciling work and family responsibilities [17 , 23–26]. As a result, many mothers opt for part-time employment as a means to harmonize their various roles [27 –30].

Hamplov´ [31] conducted an analysis utilizing data from the European Social Survey, covering the period from 2004 to 2014 and involving 30 countries. The study focused on mothers with children up to three years old. The findings revealed that mothers who were either housewives or worked up to 20 hours per week reported higher levels of happiness compared to those who worked full-time.

In Germany, a study conducted by Ebbers and Piper [32] examined data from the German Socio-economic Panel. The analysis revealed that whether women worked part-time or full-time had no significant impact on their overall life satisfaction. However, the study did find that women working part-time tended to express higher dissatisfaction with their professions compared to those working full-time, although there were no notable differences in satisfaction with their overall lives. Similarly, Schröder [33] conducted a study on the German population and concluded that the amount of time spent at work does not significantly affect the life satisfaction of mothers.

In England, Bridges and Owens [34] conducted a study using data from the British Household Panel Survey. Their findings indicated that women who worked part-time reported higher levels of life satisfaction and greater satisfaction with their chosen professions. However, the researchers noted that these results differed among younger women with higher career expectations. If these expectations were not met, these younger women expressed dissatisfaction.

In the case of Spanish women, Alvarez and Miles-Touya [35] discovered that those in part-time employment exhibited higher levels of life satisfaction. Conversely, in Chile, Montero and Rau [36] analyzed official data from national questionnaires and concluded that women who worked part-time reported similar levels of satisfaction with their lives and work as those who worked full-time.

As observed, the existing literature does not provide a definitive conclusion regarding what type of employment, either part-time or full-time, is more conducive to life satisfaction for mothers. This lack of consensus may be attributed to cultural factors, such as societal perceptions of women’s roles within the family, biases in the labor market against mothers, or the level of social support received, all of which can impact time-use patterns. Given that time-use plays a crucial role in the attempt to balance work and family responsibilities, the objective of this study is to describe and compare the life satisfaction levels and time-use patterns within occupational roles among Brazilian working mothers who are employed either part-time or full-time.

Based on the background provided, the following hypotheses were formulated for this study: 1) Brazilian mothers who work part-time experience higher levels of life satisfaction compared to those who work full-time; 2) Brazilian mothers who work part-time engage in a greater number of occupational roles compared to those who work full-time; 3) The time spent in certain roles is more strongly associated with life satisfaction than in other roles. Additionally, the study aimed to explore correlations and regressions between demographic factors, occupational roles, and life satisfaction in order to better understand their relationships.

2 Methods

2.1 Ethics

The researchers followed all necessary ethical protocols throughout the study, ensuring voluntary and confidential participation, providing information about potential risks and benefits, and ensuring proper data security. Women who agreed to participate in the study were required to provide written consent. The study was conducted in compliance with the guidelines set by the Institutional Review Board at the Federal University of Sao Carlos- UFSCar, and was approved (report no. 2.962.994) prior to the commencement of data collection. All participants signed a consent form.

2.2 Study design

This cross-sectional study focused on working mothers in Brazil and employed an electronic survey as the data collection method. Participants were recruited through social media platforms, including Facebook and WhatsApp group messages, utilizing the snowball sampling technique [37]. The sample size was calculated with a 95% of confidence level.

2.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The study established specific inclusion criteria for participant selection. These criteria were as follows:

Women who have children (biological or adopted) aged 12 years or younger, considering this age range as more demanding in terms of caregiving responsibilities.

Women who are employed either part-time or full-time. In accordance with Article 58-A of the Consolidation of Labour Laws in Brazil, a part-time job was defined as one that does not exceed 35 hours per week [38].

Participants were categorized into two groups based on their weekly working hours: part-time (up to 35 hours per week) and full-time (35 hours per week or more). Women who did not have children under the age of 12 and/or were unemployed were excluded from the study.

2.4 Measurements

2.4.1 Role checklist and time-use

The Role Checklist is a North American measure with psychometric properties that was adapted and validated in Brazil by Cordeiro [39]. The instrument shows a list of ten occupational roles from which people can select which they usually perform. These include 1) student, 2) worker, 3) volunteer, 4) caregiver, 5) home maintainer, 6) friend, 7) family member, 8) religious, 9) hobbyist/amateur, and 10) participant in organizations. A new question was included in the survey to assess the amount of time participants spent per week in each mentioned role. Since there is no existing official or validated measure for time-use, this question aimed to gather self-reported data on time allocation within each role. [40].

2.4.2 Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)

This instrument has psychometric properties and was developed by Diener et al. [41]. The SWLS aims to assess a person’s well-being and life satisfaction. The scale has five questions and adopts a seven-point Likert scale, in which 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree. The minimum total score is 5 (extremely dissatisfied with one’s life) and the maximum is 35 (extremely satisfied with one’s own life). The reliability of this measure for the Brazilian context was 0.81[42].

2.4.3 Sociodemographic data

Such as age, job, family income, number of children, time spent at work (part-time or full-time), and educational level.

2.5 Data analysis

Descriptive statistics, including measures such as mean, standard deviation, frequencies, and percentages, were employed to summarize and present the data collected in the study. The Chi-Square test for independence was used to examine potential differences in categorical variables, such as education and income, between mothers working full-time and part-time jobs. Additionally, a T-Test for independence was utilized to assess the influence of full-time and part-time employment on variables including life satisfaction (measured by the SWLS), the number of occupational roles performed, and the amount of time dedicated to these roles on a weekly basis. The correlations between SWLS scores, age, number of children, and the time spent in various occupational roles were analyzed using a two-tailed Pearson correlation coefficient.

The association between participants’ satisfaction with life (measured by SWLS score) and various factors, including occupational roles and demographics, was examined using multiple regression analysis (forward, stepwise). The variables included in the analysis were time spent at work (differentiating between full-time and part-time employment), family income (categorized as less than 4 times the minimum wage or more than 10 times the minimum wage), educational level (high school or college degree), children’s age (categorized as 0-6 years, 6-12 years, or older than 12 years), and the occupational roles performed by the participants. Furthermore, the relationship between the SWLS score and variables such as age, number of occupational roles performed, and the weekly time dedicated to each role was investigated.

The multiple regression analysis aimed to identify the significant predictors of life satisfaction and determine the associations between these predictors and the SWLS score. The forward, stepwise method was used to select the most influential variables in the model. To ensure linearity between continuous variables, partial regression plots were utilized. The analysis also confirmed that there were no violations of the assumptions of independence of residuals, homoscedasticity, multicollinearity, and normality. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS, version 26.0. A significance level of p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant for all tests conducted.

3 Results

3.1 Demographics

A sample of 1164 women completed the survey between October 2018 and February 2019. A total of 369 participants were excluded due to missing or incomplete data or not fitting in inclusion criteria, resulting in a final sample of 795 women, with a 95% confidence interval. The mean age was 35.6 years (Range: 21-52 years, SD: 4.8), with most participants reporting being married or living with a partner (N = 792, 97.5%). Participants were all identified as mothers and had between one and three children (Mean:1.2, S.D.: 0.5), with most participants (N = 674, 84.8%) reporting having at least one child aged 0 to 6 years old (Table 1).

Table 1
Descriptive Analysis –Distribution of Participants’ Background (Total Participants n = 800)

All participants Working part time Working full time

Variable Mean (SD) n (%) Mean (SD) n (%) Mean (SD) n (%)

Age 35.6 (4.8) – 35.3 (4.7) – 36.1 (4.8) –

Level of Education

High School 81 (10.2) 38 (9.5) 43 (10.9)

College (Bachelor) 191 (24) 87 (21.8) 104 (26.3)

Graduate Studies (Masters/Doctoral level) 523 (65.8) 275 (68.8) 248 (62.8)

Household Composition –

Number of Children 1.29 (0.5) – 1.28 (0.5) – 1.29 (1.29) –

Lives with:

Spouse and children 747 (94)

Spouse, children live elsewhere 36 (4.5)

Spouse, children, another family member 11 (1.4)

Income*

>2 x the Minimum Wage 17 (2.1) 9 (2.3) 8 (2)

2 to 4 x the Minimum Wage 84 (10.6) 48 (12) 36 (91)

4 to 10 x the Minimum Wage 355 (44.7) 203 (50.7) 152 (38.5)

10 to 20 x the Minimum Wage 266 (33.5) 121 (30.3) 145 (36.7)

<20 x the Minimum Wage*** 73 (9.2) 19 (4.8) 54 (13.7)

Number of Occupation Roles 4.9 (1.3) – 4.9 (1.2) 4.9 (1.3)

Use of time (Hours/Week)

Student* 2.6 (5.3) 2.98 (6.1) 2.2 (4.5)

Worker* 33.5 (12.5) 26.9 (9.7) 40.3 (11.2)

Volunteer 0.6 (3.1) 0.9 (4.1) 0.3 (1.3)

Caregiver* 34.2 (22.5) 37.9 (22.3) 30.4 (22.1)

Home Maintainer* 15.4 (13.7) 17.1 (14.5) 13.6 (12.7)

Friend 2.6 (4.8) 2.8 (5.1) 2.4 (4.5)

Family Member** 19.2 (19.6) 21.2 (20.7) 17.2 (18.3)

Religious Participant 1.3 (3.4) 1.2 (2.8) 1.4 (4.1)

Hobbyist / Amateur 2.4 (4.9) 2.3 (4.4) 2.4 (5.5)

Participant in Organizations 0.2 (1.4) 0.3 (1.7) 0.1 (1.1)

Satisfaction with Life (SWLS) 24.9 (5.6) 24.5 (5.5)

	All participants	Working part time	Working full time
Age	35.6 (4.8)	–	35.3 (4.7)	–	36.1 (4.8)	–
Level of Education
High School		81 (10.2)		38 (9.5)	43 (10.9)
College (Bachelor)		191 (24)		87 (21.8)	104 (26.3)
Graduate Studies (Masters/Doctoral level)		523 (65.8)		275 (68.8)	248 (62.8)
Household Composition –
Number of Children	1.29 (0.5)	–	1.28 (0.5)	–	1.29 (1.29)	–
Lives with:
Spouse and children		747 (94)
Spouse, children live elsewhere		36 (4.5)
Spouse, children, another family member		11 (1.4)
Income***
>2 x the Minimum Wage		17 (2.1)		9 (2.3)		8 (2)
2 to 4 x the Minimum Wage		84 (10.6)		48 (12)		36 (91)
4 to 10 x the Minimum Wage**		355 (44.7)		203 (50.7)		152 (38.5)
10 to 20 x the Minimum Wage		266 (33.5)		121 (30.3)		145 (36.7)
<20 x the Minimum Wage***		73 (9.2)		19 (4.8)		54 (13.7)
Number of Occupation Roles	4.9 (1.3)	–	4.9 (1.2)		4.9 (1.3)
Use of time (Hours/Week)
Student*	2.6 (5.3)	2.98 (6.1)			2.2 (4.5)
Worker***	33.5 (12.5)	26.9 (9.7)			40.3 (11.2)
Volunteer**	0.6 (3.1)	0.9 (4.1)			0.3 (1.3)
Caregiver***	34.2 (22.5)	37.9 (22.3)			30.4 (22.1)
Home Maintainer***	15.4 (13.7)	17.1 (14.5)			13.6 (12.7)
Friend	2.6 (4.8)	2.8 (5.1)			2.4 (4.5)
Family Member**	19.2 (19.6)	21.2 (20.7)			17.2 (18.3)
Religious Participant	1.3 (3.4)	1.2 (2.8)			1.4 (4.1)
Hobbyist / Amateur	2.4 (4.9)	2.3 (4.4)			2.4 (5.5)
Participant in Organizations	0.2 (1.4)	0.3 (1.7)			0.1 (1.1)
Satisfaction with Life (SWLS)	24.9 (5.6)	24.5 (5.5)

*p<0.05; **p<0.01;*** p < 0.001.

Regarding education level, a majority of our sample (N = 714, 89.8%) reported completing at least a college degree, with a significant number of participants (N = 523, 65.8%) concluding at least one post-graduate program. The increased education level was reflected in participants’ income, with a relatively small number of women reporting their family’s monthly income as being lower than four times the national minimum wage (N = 101, 12.7%).

3.2 Life Satisfaction and time-use within occupational roles

No differences were observed when comparing the life satisfaction of mothers working full or part-time jobs (t (793)=1.160, p = 0.24), with no significant change in the total number of occupational roles performed by participants in both groups (t (793)=3.307, p = 0.64) –rejecting hypotheses 1 and 2.

Despite no significant difference in the total number of occupational roles performed, the amount of time spent on each one was different among the participants. As expected, women working full-time jobs report spending significantly more time as a Worker (t (793)=17.678, p = 0.001), with less time dedicated to the Family Member role (t (793)=2.918, p = 0.004), when compared to participants working part-time jobs.

In addition, mothers working part-time jobs reported spending significantly more time performing activities related to Student (t (793)=2.002, p = 0.04), Volunteer (t (793)=2.693, p = 0.007), Home Maintainer role (t (793)=3.605, p < 0.001) and Caregiver roles (t (793)=4.737, p < 0.001). A positive, but small correlations were also observed between Life satisfaction and performing the role of Friend (r = 0.106, p = 0.003), being a Hobbyist/Amateur (r = 0.08, p = 0.018) and Caregiver (r = 0.07, p = 0.026) –confirming hypothesis 3.

A negative, small correlation was observed between the number of children and SWLS scores (r=-0.08, p = 0.016), and performing the role of Home Maintainer (r=-0.08, p = 0.023) (Table 2).

Table 2
Correlation between satisfaction with life and weekly time dedicated to each role

SWLS Student Worker Volunteer Caregiver Home Friend Family Religious Hobbyist/ Participant in

maintainer member member Amateur organizations

SWLS 0.012 -0.025 0.019 0.079* -0.081* 0.106* 0.054 -0.027 0.084* 0.010

Student -0.064 0.126* 0.044 0.036 0.087* -0.009 0.044 0.011 0.032

Worker -0.120* 0.042 0.008 -0.042 0.016 -0.013 0.039 -0.059

Volunteer -0.055 -0.002 0.059 -0.034 0.113* 0.023 0.361*

Caregiver 0.319 0.042 .234 -0.090* -0.019 -0.029

Home Maintainer .0159* 0.285* 0.158* 0.045 0.041

Friend 0.200* 0.334* 0.215* 0.031

Family Member 0.126* .188* -0.031

Religious Participant 0.241* 0.157*

Hobbyist/Amateur 0.071

Participant in organizations

	Student	Worker	Volunteer	Caregiver	Home	Friend	Family	Religious	Hobbyist/	Participant in
SWLS	0.012	-0.025	0.019	0.079*	-0.081*	0.106*	0.054	-0.027	0.084*	0.010
Student		-0.064	0.126*	0.044	0.036	0.087*	-0.009	0.044	0.011	0.032
Worker			-0.120*	0.042	0.008	-0.042	0.016	-0.013	0.039	-0.059
Volunteer				-0.055	-0.002	0.059	-0.034	0.113*	0.023	0.361*
Caregiver					0.319**	0.042	.234**	-0.090*	-0.019	-0.029
Home Maintainer						.0159*	0.285*	0.158*	0.045	0.041
Friend							0.200*	0.334*	0.215*	0.031
Family Member								0.126*	.188*	-0.031
Religious Participant									0.241*	0.157*
Hobbyist/Amateur										0.071
Participant in organizations

*p<0.05.

3.3 Association between life satisfaction, demographics and occupational roles

The multiple regression model significantly predicted SWLS’ scores, F (20, 772)=9.162, p < 0.001, ΔR2 = 0.171. Life Satisfaction scores were positively associated with higher family income (p < 0.001), the number of occupational roles performed (p < 0.001), and increased time dedicated to the Friend role (p = 0.02).

Table 3
Multiple regression results

SWLS B 95% CI for B SEB ß R² ΔR²

LL UL 0.192* 0.171*

Model

Constant 23.789*** 19.53 27.57 2.04

Age -0.09* -0.18 -0.01 0.04 -0.08

Work (Full-time x Part-time) -0.29 -1.18 0.59 0.45 -0.02

Education (High School x College) 0.23 -1.30 1.76 0.78 0.01

Education (College x Post-grad) 0.98 -0.52 2.48 0.76 0.08

Income (Up to 4x minimum wage) -2.27* -4.06 -1.45 0.66 -0.16

Income (More than 10x minimum wage) 2.26* 1.44 3.08 0.41 0.02

Children (0-6) -0.05 -1.34 1.23 0.65 -0.01

Children (6-12) -1.38 -2.36 -0.40 0.49 0.11

Children (12+) 1.33 -0.04 2.67 0.68 0.07

Number Occup. Roles -0.86* 0.55 1.16 0.15 0.20

Student -0.02 -0.09 0.04 0.03 -0.02

Worker -0.02 -0.05 0.01 0.01 -0.04

Volunteer 0.05 -0.07 0.17 0.06 0.02

Caregiver 0.01 -0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02

Home Maintainer -0.01 -0.04 0.01 0.01 -0.04

Friend 0.09* 0.01 0.17 0.04 0.08

Family Member 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02

Religious Participant -0.08 -0.02 0.03 0.05 -0.05

Hobbyist / Amateur 0.04 -0.03 0.11 0.03 0.03

Participant in Organizations -0.09 -0.35 0.16 0.134 -0.02

SWLS	B	95% CI for B	SEB	ß	R²	ΔR²
Model
Constant	23.789***	19.53	27.57	2.04
Age	-0.09*	-0.18	-0.01	0.04	-0.08
Work (Full-time x Part-time)	-0.29	-1.18	0.59	0.45	-0.02
Education (High School x College)	0.23	-1.30	1.76	0.78	0.01
Education (College x Post-grad)	0.98	-0.52	2.48	0.76	0.08
Income (Up to 4x minimum wage)	-2.27***	-4.06	-1.45	0.66	-0.16
Income (More than 10x minimum wage)	2.26***	1.44	3.08	0.41	0.02
Children (0-6)	-0.05	-1.34	1.23	0.65	-0.01
Children (6-12)	-1.38**	-2.36	-0.40	0.49	0.11
Children (12+)	1.33	-0.04	2.67	0.68	0.07
Number Occup. Roles	-0.86***	0.55	1.16	0.15	0.20
Student	-0.02	-0.09	0.04	0.03	-0.02
Worker	-0.02	-0.05	0.01	0.01	-0.04
Volunteer	0.05	-0.07	0.17	0.06	0.02
Caregiver	0.01	-0.01	0.02	0.01	0.02
Home Maintainer	-0.01	-0.04	0.01	0.01	-0.04
Friend	0.09*	0.01	0.17	0.04	0.08
Family Member	0.01	0.01	0.02	0.01	0.02
Religious Participant	-0.08	-0.02	0.03	0.05	-0.05
Hobbyist / Amateur	0.04	-0.03	0.11	0.03	0.03
Participant in Organizations	-0.09	-0.35	0.16	0.134	-0.02

Model=“Enter” method; B = unstandardized regression coefficient; CI = confidence interval; LL = Lower limit; UL = upper limit; SE B = standard error of the coefficient; ß=standardized coefficient; R² = Coefficient of determination; ΔR² = Adjusted R². *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.

4 Discussion

4.1 Life satisfaction and time spent at work

The present study aimed to compare the time-use within occupational roles and life satisfaction among Brazilian mothers who work part-time and full-time. This study is the first of its kind to explore the association between occupational roles and life satisfaction in working women. Contrary to previous research [29 , 34] that reported higher life satisfaction among mothers working part-time, our findings indicated that life satisfaction was not associated with the amount of time spent at work, whether part-time or full-time. These results are consistent with studies conducted by Ebbers and Piper [32] and Schröder [33] in the German context, which also found no significant relationship between life satisfaction and working part-time or full-time.

The divergent results observed in different studies regarding the association between work and life satisfaction highlight an important dimension that often goes unnoticed by researchers and society at large. In a capitalist culture, work is often overemphasized as a critical determinant of life satisfaction [43], but this view may be limited. While work undeniably plays a significant role in our daily lives, there are numerous other factors that influence our perception of life satisfaction. Focusing solely on whether one works part-time or full-time can provide a narrow perspective on the issue [44, 45]. It is essential to consider a broader range of elements that contribute to overall life satisfaction, recognizing that work is just one aspect among many.

4.2 Life satisfaction and incomes

It is worth noting that in our sample, life satisfaction was found to be positively associated with higher incomes. Though, it is important to acknowledge that the association between income and life satisfaction is inconclusive in the overall literature [46 –50]. Our findings suggest that while there may be no direct association between working part-time or full-time and life satisfaction, working full-time can potentially lead to higher incomes, and higher incomes have been found to be more conducive to overall life satisfaction [48, 49]. Taking into consideration the results of our study along with existing literature on the topic, it is evident that although life satisfaction may not be directly linked to work, work can serve as a means to attain a higher income, which in turn can contribute to a more comfortable life and provide opportunities for social interaction and meaningful connections [49]. It emphasizes the notion that work can indirectly impact life satisfaction by enabling individuals to meet their material needs and facilitating social experiences.

4.3 Time-use within occupational roles

Our study provides insights into the lifestyle patterns of mothers working full-time and part-time. We found that working fewer hours allows individuals to engage in multiple roles, such as being a student, volunteer, family member, and caregiver. Importantly, our results demonstrated that performing more roles is associated with higher life satisfaction. This finding aligns with the conclusions of Dieckhoff et al. [51] and Ruppaner, Moller, and Sayer [25], who observed that women who prioritize domestic and caregiving responsibilities often prefer part-time work.

On the other hand, our study also revealed that mothers who worked part-time tended to spend more time in the role of home maintainer, which reflects a normative role expectation observed worldwide [9 –11]. Numerous studies have consistently shown that women, especially those working fewer hours, bear the primary responsibility for home maintenance and caregiving roles, in contrast to men [24 , 52–55]. This finding helps explain our results, as mothers working full-time may receive support from their husbands in managing their work responsibilities, and if this support is not available, they may seek external assistance for home maintenance to fulfill their job requirements [24 , 56].

4.4 Life satisfaction and time-use within occupational roles

Our study revealed a positive association between life satisfaction and the time spent in roles that involve social interaction and human connection, such as being a friend, caregiver, and hobbyist. This finding aligns with the findings of Bränholm and Fugl-Meyer [57], where women placed higher value on the roles of friend, caregiver, and indoor hobbyist. The presence of social support from friends has consistently been identified as a crucial factor in enhancing maternal confidence and reducing emotional distress [58, 59].

Furthermore, the results of Peronne [60] indicated that life satisfaction tends to be higher among married individuals compared to those who are single. Overall, our findings suggest that nurturing relationships and cultivating social connections may have a more significant impact on life satisfaction than solely considering the amount of time spent at work each week [61]. Additionally, our study highlights that certain roles are associated with higher life satisfaction than others, indicating that achieving role balance or time balance can be subjective and challenging to capture through research [4 , 18].

4.5 Implications

The practical implications of our study reveal that work does not hold a central position in determining life satisfaction among the mothers in our sample. Furthermore, engaging in social interaction roles is found to have a significant positive impact on overall life satisfaction. This highlights a novel dimension of work-life balance, suggesting that placing excessive emphasis on work may not be as influential in fostering life satisfaction as previously believed. Instead, nurturing social relationships emerges as a key factor in achieving a sense of fulfillment.

These findings hold relevance for scholars, businesses, and policymakers with a vested interest in advancing gender equality, promoting work-life balance, and enhancing the well-being of mothers. Building upon these insights, further research can delve deeper into the intricate relationship between social roles and life satisfaction, thereby expanding our understanding of the underlying determinants of well-being among working mothers. Businesses, in turn, can create a supportive work environment that values and encourages social interactions, thereby fostering employee well-being and job satisfaction. Lastly, policymakers can focus on implementing measures that facilitate work-life balance for working mothers.

By incorporating these findings into their respective domains, scholars, businesses, and policymakers can contribute to cultivating a culture that recognizes the significance of social relationships in conjunction with work, ultimately fostering greater life satisfaction and overall well-being for working mothers.

4.6 Limitations and future studies

One limitation of our study is the potential lack of external validity, as our sample primarily consisted of middle-class women with stable and formal employment, which may not fully represent the diverse reality of Brazil. Women from lower economic classes, Black women, single mothers, and those engaged in marginalized occupations, such as prostitution, were not adequately represented in our survey. Furthermore, the absence of measurements for role balance and role overload in our study limits the accuracy of our results in addressing our specific areas of interest. Future studies should aim to address these gaps and broaden the scope of research.

While we acknowledge that the quality of participation in various roles can impact the life satisfaction of our participants, it is important to note that our study was primarily quantitative in nature. Therefore, we recommend that future qualitative studies be conducted to explore the subjective experiences of mothers performing different roles. Additionally, potential avenues for future research could include cross-national samples, longitudinal approaches, and mixed-method designs incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data. These approaches would offer a more comprehensive understanding of how and why working mothers engage in their roles.

Despite these limitations, our study possesses several strengths: the utilization of time-use data, validated instruments, and a large sample size of 795 participants, which contributes to the investigation of a contemporary topic among researchers. These strengths provide a solid foundation for further exploration and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in this field.

5 Conclusion

Our initial question was if part-time work was more conducive to life satisfaction than full-time work. We found that there is no relation between life satisfaction and time spent at work. Although the time-use of our society is organized around time spent at work, our results showed a deeper dimension of life satisfaction –much beyond working part or full-time. Life satisfaction, as a matter of fact, is linked with the type of roles performed (especially those with social interaction), and higher family incomes.

Ethical approval

The study was approved by the Federal University of São Carlos (report no. 2.962.994).

Informed consent

All participants signed a consent form.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors have no acknowledgments.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Funding

This research was funded by CAPES –Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior.

References

Lee

, Kielhofner

Habituation: Patterns of Daily Occupation. Philadelphia. Wolters Kluwer; 2017.

Scott

, McFadden

, Yates

, Baker

, McSoley

. The Role Checklist V2: QP: Establishment of Reliability and Validation of Electronic Administration. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/104276/030802214X13916969447272 [Internet]. 2014 Feb 17 [cited 2022 Sep 16];77(2):96–102. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/10.4276/030802214X13916969447272

Black

, Milbourn

, Desjardins

, Sylvester

, Parrant

, Buchanan

. Understanding the meaning and use of occupational engagement: Findings from a scoping review: https://doi.org/101177/0308022618821580 [Internet]. 2019 Jan 19 [cited 2021 Aug 14];82(5):272–87. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1177/0308022618821580

Christiansen

, Matuska

. Lifestyle Balance: A Review of Concepts and Research. https://doi.org/101080/1442759120069686570 [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 Jul 21]; 13(1):49–61.Available 574 from: https://www-tandfonline-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1080/14427591.2006.9686570

Marks

, MacDermid

. Multiple Roles and the Self: A Theory of Role Balance, J Marriage Fam 1996May;58(2):417.

Greenhaus

, Collins

, Shaw

. The relation between work–family balance and quality of life, J Vocat Behav 2003;63(3):510–31.

Kielhofner

Temporal adaptation: A conceptual frame work for occupational therapy. Am J Occup Ther. 1977.

Greenhaus

, Allen

Work-family balance: A review and extension of the literature. Handb Occup Heal Psychol (2nd ed.) [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 Jun 29];(August):165-83. Available from: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-06010-009

Rubiano Matulevich

, Viollaz

. Gender differences in time use: Allocating time between the market and the household. World Bank Policy ResWork Pap. 2019;(8981).

10.

Pepin

, Sayer

, Casper

. Marital Status and Mothers’ Time Use: Childcare, Housework, Leisure, and Slee Demography 2018;55(1):107–33.

11.

Augustine

, Prickett

, Negraia

. Doing It All? Mothers’ College Enrollment, Time Use, and Affective Well-being. J Marriage Fam [Internet]. 2018 Aug 1 [cited 2022 Sep 19];80(4):963–74. Available from: https://onlinelibrary-wiley.ez31.periodicos.capes.gov.br/doi/full/10.1111/jomf.12477

12.

Giurge

, Whillans

, Yemiscigil

. A multicoun try perspective on gender differences in time use during COVID-19. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A [Internet]. 2021 Mar 23 [cited 2021 Jun 29];118(12). Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33798094/

13.

Hagqvist

, Nordenmark

, Pérez

, Alemán

, Gådin

. Parental leave policies and time use for mothers and fathers: a case study of Spain and Sweden. https://doiorg.ez31.periodicos.capes.gov.br/101080/2002151820171374103 [Internet]. 2017 Jan [cited 2022 Sep 19];8(1):1374103. Available from: https://www-tandfonline.ez31.periodicos.capes.gov.br/doi/abs/10.1080/20021518.2017.1374103

14.

Hagqvist

, Toivanen

, Vinberg

. The gender time gap: Time use among self-employed women and men compared to paid employees in Sweden. https://doi.org/101177/0961463X16683969 [Internet]. 2016 Dec 29 [cited 2022 Sep 19];28(2):680–96. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1177/0961463X16683969

15.

Dotti Sani

. Within-couple inequality in earnings and the relative motherhood penalty. A cross-national study of european countries. Eur Sociol Rev [Internet]. 2015 Dec 1 [cited 2021 Jun 15];31(6):667–82. Available from: https://academic-oup-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/esr/article/31/6/667/2404250

16.

Jee

, Misra

, Murray-Close

. Motherhood Penalties in the U.S., 1986-2014. J Marriage Fam [Internet]. 2019 Apr 1 [cited 2021 Jun 15];81(2):434–49. Available from: https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/full/10.1111/jomf.12543

17.

Hook

, Pettit

. Reproducing occupational inequality: Motherhood and occupational segregation. Soc Polit [Internet]. 2016 Sep 1 [cited 2021 Jun 23];23(3):329–62. Available from: https://academic-oup-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/sp/article/23/3/329/1753323

18.

Clark

. Work/Family Border Theory: A New Theory of Work/Family Balance: https://doi.org/101177/0018726700536001 [Internet]. 2016 Apr 22 [cited 2021 Jul 16];53(6):747–70. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1177/0018726700536001

19.

Padavic

, Ely

, Reid

. Explaining the Persistence of Gender Inequality: The Work–family Narrative as a Social Defense against the 24/7 Work Culture*. Adm Sci Q [Internet]. 2020 Mar 1 [cited 2021 Jun 15];65(1):61–111. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/full/10.1177/0001839219832310

20.

Brauner

, Wöhrmann

, Frank

, Michel

. Health and work-life balance across types of work schedules: A latent class analysis, Appl Ergon 2019;81:102906.

21.

J K The Relationship Between Frequency of Injuries and Workplace Environment in Korea: Focus on ShiftWork and Workplace Environmental Factors. Saf HealthWork [Internet]. 2018 Dec 1 [cited 2021 Aug 14];9(4):421–6. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30559990/

22.

Backman

. Occupational balance: Exploring the relationships among daily occupations and their influence on well-being, Can J Occup Ther 2004;71(4):202–9.

23.

Offer

, Schneider

. Revisiting the Gender Gap in Time-Use Patterns: Multitasking and Well-Being among Mothers and Fathers in Dual-Earner Families. https://doi.org/101177/0003122411425170 [Internet]. 2011 Dec 1 [cited 2021 Jul 21];76(6):809–33. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1177/0003122411425170

24.

Lawson

, Sun

, McHale

. Family-friendly for her, longer hours for him: Actor-partner model linking work-family environment to work-family interference. J Fam Psychol [Internet]. 2019 Jun 1 [cited 2021 Jun 29];33(4):444–52. Available from: /record/2019-07482-001

25.

Ruppanner

, Moller

, Sayer

. Expensive Childcare and Short School Days=Lower Maternal Employment and More Time in Childcare? Evidence from the American Time Use Survey. Socius Sociol Res a Dyn World [Internet]. 2019 Jan 29 [cited 2021 Jun 29];5:237802311986027. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119860277

26.

Windebank

, Martinez-Perez

. Gender divisions of domestic labour and paid domestic services. Serv Ind J [Internet]. 2018 Sep 10 [cited 2021 Jun 29]; 38(11-12):875–95. Available from: https://www-tandfonline-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1080/02642069.2018.1484110

27.

Buehler

, O’Brien

. Mothers’ Part-Time Employment: Associations With Mother and Family Well-Being, J Fam Psychol 2011Dec;25(6):895–906.

28.

Berlato

, Fernandes

, Mantovani

DMN

. Dual Career couples and their inclinations regarding work and family: the Brazilian scenario. Cad EBAPEBR [Internet]. 2019 Sep 22 [cited 2021 Jun 29];17(3):495–508. Available from: https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1590/1679-395173826

29.

Beham

, Drobnič

, Präg

, Baierl

, Eckner

. Parttime work and gender inequality in Europe: a comparative analysis of satisfaction with work–life balance. Eur Soc [Internet]. 2019 May 27 [cited 2021 Jun 29];21(3):378–402. Available from: https://www-tandfonline-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1080/14616696.2018.1473627

30.

Dieckhoff

, Gash

, Mertens

, Romeu Gordo

. A stalled revolution? What can we learn from women’s drop-out to part-time jobs: A comparative analysis of Germany and the UK, Res Soc Stratif Mobil 2016;46:129–40.

31.

Hamplová

. Does Work Make Mothers Happy? J Happiness Stud [Internet]. 2019 Feb 15 [cited 2022 Sep 16];20(2):471–97. Available from: https://link-springer-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/article/10.1007/s10902-018-9958-2

32.

Ebbers

, Piper

. Satisfactions comparisons: women with families, full-time and part-time self-employed, Int J Gend Entre 2017;9(2):171–87.

33.

Schröder

. How working hours influence the life satisfaction of childless men and women, fathers and mothers in Germany. Z Soziol [Internet]. 2018 Feb 23 [cited 2021 Oct 26];47(1):65–82. Available from: https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-2018-1004/html

34.

Bridges

, Owens

. Female job satisfaction: can we explain the part-time puzzle? Oxf Econ Pap [Internet]. 2016 Dec 22 [cited 2021 Jun 29];69(3):gpw064. Available from: https://academic-oup-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/oep/article/69/3/782/2730687

35.

Álvarez

, Miles-Touya

. Time Allocation and Women’s Life Satisfaction: Evidence from Spain. Soc Indic Res [Internet]. 2016 Dec 1 [cited 2022 Sep 19];129(3):1207–30. Available from: https://link-springercom.ez31.periodicos.capes.gov.br/article/10.1007/s11205-015-1159-3

36.

Montero

, Rau

. Part-time Work, Job Satisfaction and Well-being: Evidence from a Developing OECD Country. J Dev Stud [Internet]. 2015 Apr 3 [cited 2021 Jun 29];51(4):370–85. Available from: https://www-tandfonline-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1080/00220388.2014.963567

37.

Goodman

. Snowball Sampling. Ann Math Stat [Internet]. 1961 Mar 1 [cited 2021 Jun 17];32(1):148–70. Available from: https://projecteuclid.org/journals/annalsof-mathematical-statistics/volume-32/issue-1/Snowball-Sampling/10.1214/aoms/1177705148.full

38.

° do Trabalho C das

DECRETO-LEI N. ° 5.452, de 1° de maio de 1943. 2019.

39.

Cordeiro

, Camelier

, Oakley

, Jardim

. Crosscultural reproducibility of the Brazilian Portuguese version of the role checklist for persons with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Occup Ther [Internet]. 2007 Jan 1 [cited 2021 Jun 29];61(1):33–40. Available from: http://aota.org/terms

40.

Gershuny

Time-use surveys and the measurement of national well-being. Cent Time Use Res Univ Oxford, Swansea, UK, Off Natl Stat. 2011;

41.

Diener

, Emmons

, Larsem

, Griffin

. The Satisfaction With Life Scale. J Pers Assess [Internet]. 1985 Feb 1 [cited 2021 Jun 23];49(1):71–5. Available from: /record/1985-27000-001

42.

Gouveia

. Life satisfaction in Brazil: Testing the psychometric properties of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) in five Brazilian samples. Soc Indic Res [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2021 Jun 23];90(2):267–77. Available from: https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/27734788

43.

Erdogan

, Bauer

, Truxillo

, Mansfield

. Whistle While You Work: A Review of the Life Satisfaction Literature. https://doi.org/101177/0149206311429379 [Internet]. 2012 Jan 4 [cited 2021 Dec 10];38(4):1038–83. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1177/0149206311429379

44.

Huebner

, Suldo

, Gilman

Life Satisfaction. 2006.

45.

Delhey

. From materialist to post-materialist happiness? National affluence and determinants of life satisfaction in cross-national perspective. Soc Indic Res [Internet]. 2010 May 18 [cited 2021 Dec 10];97(1):65–84. Available from: https://link-springer-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/article/10.1007/s11205-009-9558-y

46.

Wolbring

, Keuschnigg

, Negele

. Comparisons, and Adaptation: The Importance of Relative Income for Life Satisfaction. Eur Sociol Rev [Internet]. 2013 Feb 1 [cited 2021 Dec 10];29(1):86–104. Available from: https://academic-oup-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/esr/article/29/1/86/530018

47.

Brzezinski

. Top incomes and subjective well-being, J Econ Psychol 2019;73:60–5.

48.

Gere

, Schimmack

. Benefits of income: Associations with life satisfaction among earners and homemakers, Pers Individ Dif 2017;119:92–5.

49.

Masuda

, Williams

, Tallis

. Does Life Satisfaction Vary with Time and Income? Investigating the Relationship Among Free Time, Income, and Life Satisfaction. J Happiness Stud [Internet]. 2021 Jun 1 [cited 2021 Dec 10];22(5):2051–73. Available from: https://link-springer-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/article/10.1007/s10902-020-00307-8

50.

Quispe-Torreblanca

, Brown

GDA

, Boyce

, Wood

, De Neve

. Inequality and Social Rank: Income Increases Buy More Life Satisfaction in More Equal Countries. Personal Soc Psychol Bull [Internet]. 2021 Apr 1 [cited 2021 Dec 10];47(4):519–39. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/full/10.1177/0146167220923853

51.

Dieckhoff

, Gash

, Mertens

, Romeu Gordo

. A stalled revolution? What can we learn from women’s drop-out to part-time jobs: A comparative analysis of Germany and the UK, Res Soc Stratif Mobil 2016;46:129–40.

52.

Hook

. Gender inequality in the welfare state: Sex segregation in housework, 1965-2003. Am J Sociol [Internet]. 2010 Jul 17 [cited 2021 Jun 29];115(5):1480–523. Available from: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/651384

53.

Vaca-Trigo

Oportunidades y desafíos para la autonomía de las mujeres en el futuro escenario del trabajo. 2019 Jan 18 [cited 2021 Jul 16]; Available from: https://repositorio.cepal.org/handle/11362/44408

54.

Trask

Women, Work, and Globalization [Internet]. Women, Work, and Globalization: Challenges and Opportunities. Routledge; 2013 [cited 2022 Jun 3]. 395 p. Available from: https://www-taylorfrancis-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/books/9781134699391

55.

Comisión Económica para America Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL) Planes de igualdad de género en América Latinay el Caribe. Mapas de ruta para el desarrollo [Internet]. CEPAL; 2017 [cited 2021 Aug 30]. 86 p. Available from: https://repositorio.cepal.org/handle/11362/41014

56.

Gorman

, Fritzsche

. The good-mother stereotype: Stay at home (or wish that you did!). J Appl Soc Psychol [Internet]. 2002 Oct 1 [cited 2021 Jun 29];32(10):2190–201. Available from: https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/full/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb02069.x

57.

Branholm

, Fugl-Meyer

. Occupational Role Preferences and Life Satisfaction: https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/101177/153944929201200303 [Internet]. 2016 Aug 24 [cited 2021 Dec 10];12(3):159–71. Available from: https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/abs/10.1177/153944929201200303

58.

Chavis

. Mothering and anxiety: Social support and competence as mitigating factors for first-time mothers. Soc Work Health Care [Internet]. 2016 Jul 2 [cited 2022 Jun 27];55(6):461–80. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27266719/

59.

Brown

, Hudson

, Campbell-Grossman

, Kupzyk

, Yates

, Hanna

. Social Support, Parenting Competence, and Parenting Satisfaction Among Adolescent, African American, Mothers. West J 829 Nurs Res [Internet]. 2018 Apr 1 [cited 2022 Jun 27];40(4):502–19. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28322635/

60.

Peronne

. Balancing life roles to achieve career happiness andlife satisfaction, Career Plan Adult Dev J 2000;15(4):49–58.

61.

Amati

, Meggiolaro

, Rivellini

, Zaccarin

. Social relations and life satisfaction: the role of friends. Genus [Internet]. 2018 Dec 1 [cited 2021 Dec 9];74(1):1–18. Available from: https://link-springer-com-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/articles/10.1186/s41118-018-0032-z