Comprehensive meta-analysis of emotional intelligence

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Emotional intelligence refers to an individual’s awareness of their emotions and their ability to effectively regulate them. Emotional intelligence also encompasses the ability to empathize with and establish meaningful relationships with others.

OBJECTIVE:

In this study, a comprehensive meta-analysis approach was employed to investigate the relationships between emotional intelligence and various factors including social support, organizational aspects, satisfaction, and stressors.

METHODS:

Moreover, the extent to which emotional intelligence influenced these factors was investigated and analyzed through meta-analysis.

RESULTS:

A data analysis revealed that emotional intelligence correlated positively with social support, organizational aspects, and satisfaction and negatively with stressors.

CONCLUSIONS:

These results suggest that organizations should adopt management strategies for enhancing the emotional intelligence of their employees, thereby strengthening their social support systems and their organizational cohesion and efficiency. To achieve this, organizations are advised to implement reasonable management systems and emotional management education and training to enable employees to effectively manage their emotions and understand the emotions of others. Subsequently, the job and life satisfaction of the employees can be enhanced and the negative effects of stressors can be mitigated.

Keywords

Emotional intelligence social support organizational aspects satisfaction stressors emotional management education meta-analysis

1. Introduction

The concept of emotional intelligence was first proposed by Salovey and Mayer [1]. The term emotional intelligence became globally recognized after Goleman’s [2] publication of EQ-Emotional Intelligence, which details the overall connotation of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence encompasses the capacity to recognize and articulate emotions, comprehend their significance, and effectively regulate them to promote individual development [3, 4]. Emotional intelligence encompasses not only an individual’s capacity for recognizing and managing their own emotions but also their ability to understand the emotions of others and establish meaningful relationships with others. The World Economic Forum [5] predicted in the Future of Jobs Report that emotional intelligence would emerge as one of the top 10 essential job skills by 2020. Emotional intelligence is associated with many organizational aspects. In addition to organizational performance, emotional intelligence influences leadership, decision making, social behavior, and conflict resolutions. Moreover, emotional intelligence may be associated with labor safety and accidents [6]. Studies related to work-life balance have highlighted the critical role of social support as a moderator [7, 8]. Social support not only enhances individuals’ emotional self-awareness but also reduces conflicts between their family and work responsibilities [9]. In the workplace context, emotional intelligence typically pertains to the ability of an individual within an organization to recognize and regulate emotions, both their own and those of their colleagues. Studies have suggested that resolving conflicts through emotional intelligence can enhance employees’ interpersonal interactions [10]. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to explore the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational aspects and social support.

The rise of globalization and diversification of society have increased interpersonal interactions. Different work environments and situations require different work skills. Coping with the pressure of acquiring various skills depending on work environments and situations, employees often accumulate job-related stress. According to the Survey of Perceptions of Safety and Health in the Work Environment conducted in 2010 in Taiwan by the Council of Labor Affairs of the Executive Yuan, approximately 14.23% of workers experienced extremely high stress levels in the workplace and 22.85% acknowledged that they encountered emotional disturbances at work [11]. Additionally, a study indicated that approximately 17% of workers experienced severe emotional disturbances [12]. In recent years, news media has reported a notable increase in the number of negative incidents attributed to workers who have sustained excessive job stress. Emotional intelligence can influence life satisfaction through the chain mediating effects of “social support-positive affect” and social “support-negative affect” [13]. Therefore, the second objective of this study was to investigate the effects of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction and the experience of stressors.

In Taiwan, emotional intelligence has garnered considerable attention in the realms of individual development and organizational practices. Although numerous meta-analyses have been conducted on emotional intelligence, comprehensive research on related issues remains limited. Consequently, the present study used CMA to comprehensively explore various aspects of emotional intelligence. Thus, the third objective of this study was to address the gap in the domestic literature regarding emotional intelligence involving CMA by integrating findings from different studies.

This study primarily focuses on the Taiwan region. Stemming from Western origins, research on emotional intelligence in Taiwan have been started relatively late. Additionally, given the cultural differences between East and West, it is worth validating the value of emotional intelligence in a Chinese context to enrich the overall literature on this topic. With the rise of indigenous research, emotional intelligence has become a popular research topic in Taiwan in recent years. Besides, a CMA methodology was used to conduct a thorough analysis of the relationships between emotional intelligence and key variables, including social support, organizational aspects, satisfaction, and stressors. Moreover, the extent of influence that emotional intelligence exerted on these factors was investigated. To achieve this, studies related to emotional intelligence were compiled in a quantitative manner to clarify the relationships between different dimensions, ultimately yielding explicit research findings.

In summary, the objective of the present study was to comprehensively gather empirical studies on emotional intelligence spanning various years. The present study employed meta-analytic techniques to convert these research samples into effect sizes and statistical measures to offer a deeper and more objective summary of the outcomes associated with emotional intelligence.

2. Literature review

2.1. Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence originated from the concept of social intelligence proposed by Thorndike in 1920. Salovey and Mayer [1] introduced the term “emotional intelligence” for the first time. They defined it as the ability to perceive and recognize one’s own and others’ emotions and moods as well as the ability to use this information to navigate their thoughts and behaviors [14]. Mayer and Salovey [15] redefined emotional intelligence as a cognitive ability to effectively manage emotions. Individual emotional intelligence can be evaluated using quantitative measurement. Emotional intelligence encompasses a range of abilities, including the accurately perception, assessment, and expression of emotions; the capacity to access and generate emotions to aid in thinking; an understanding of emotions and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to facilitate emotional and intelligence growth [16]. Cooper and Sawaf [17] defined emotional intelligence as the ability to observe, understand, and effectively use emotional competence and wisdom; when emotions are reliable and respectable, emotional intelligence can enable people to gain profound insights into themselves and others. Weisinger [18] proposed a similar viewpoint, emphasizing that through emotional intelligence, individuals can guide their thoughts and behaviors, which not only contributes to personal growth but also promotes interpersonal interactions. In summary, emotional intelligence is an intrinsic competence that integrates the abilities to perceive, express, and apply emotions. It also involves an individual’s capacity to learn and adapt to their own and others’ emotions while maintaining emotional balance in the environment.

2.2. Empirical study of emotional intelligence

2.2.1. Relationship between emotional intelligence and social support

In recent years, the relationship between emotional intelligence and social support has become a focal point in academia. Social support entails individuals receiving both emotional and tangible assistance from their families, friends, colleagues, and communities. Salovey and Mayer [1] highlighted the close connection between emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationships. Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in enabling individuals to recognize and understand their own and others’ emotional perceptions, thereby enhancing the quality of interpersonal relationships and facilitating the acquisition of social support. Social support, as a mechanism for managing interpersonal relationships, serves as a buffer against environmental stressors. It is an interactive process between individuals and their social networks or the environment, aimed at establishing effective social connections that provide support and assistance, which, in turn, helps alleviate physiological and psychological stress. By strengthening personal adaptive abilities, individuals can better confront life’s challenges [19]. Moreover, social support empowers individuals to exercise greater control over their personal and professional lives while reducing conflicts between work and family responsibilities [9].

From the perspective of social interaction, the relationship between individuals and the environment is interactive. Employee behavior is influenced by the interplay between personal intrinsic factors and external environments [20]. When a workplace offers the necessary support to employees, including direct assistance and valuable information, it fosters an environment conducive to employee productivity. In turn, employees can accumulate valuable resources and experience more flexible work arrangements [21]. Brackett et al. [22] asserted that emotional intelligence was significantly correlated with social functioning, as evidenced by self-report assessments and performance measurements. Additionally, emotional intelligence can predict individuals’ requirements for and use of social support, thereby enhancing the quality of their social functioning and social support. Hu [23] discovered that an individual’s well-being can be predicted by both primary and emotional social support derived from family and school environments and by the satisfaction with social protection and care needs.

Studies exploring the interplay between emotional intelligence and social support often focus on employees across diverse industries. Chen et al. [24] identified that social support exerted a significant and negative effect on job stress and turnover intention, and that job stress partially mediated the relationship between social support and turnover intention. Chen and Yu [25] indicated that educational levels affected perceptions of organizational politics, organizational attachment, and emotional intelligence. Through their analysis of the interaction between emotional intelligence and perceptions of organizational politics, the researchers revealed that emotional intelligence played a moderating role in the relationship between organizational politics perceptions and organizational attachment. Researchers investigated participants in an intervention designed to enhance emotional and social competencies and found significant improvements in competencies related to occupational attainment. Specifically, men’s interpersonal scores and women’s adaptability scores showed significant improvement throughout the intervention. Moreover, women’s scores in both identifying and describing feelings improved significantly, as did men’s scores in describing feelings [26, 27]. High emotional intelligence scores were significantly associated and positively correlated with increased participants’ years of work experience, frequency of attending social events, and their overall impression of the events [27].

In summary, emotional intelligence and social support are closely correlated concepts. Individuals with higher emotional intelligence tend to have a better understanding of their own emotions and can effectively manage them, which often leads to them being more adept at receiving support and understanding from others. Moreover, those with higher emotional intelligence can better understand and satisfy others’ needs, making it easier for them to become the center of social connections and cultivate a broader network of social relationships. Furthermore, social support may exert a positive effect on emotional intelligence. Studies have revealed that social support can enhance the quality of interpersonal relationships and social functioning, facilitating the acquisition of social support and flexible work arrangements [1, 21, 22]. Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H1: Emotional intelligence is significantly and positively correlated with social support.

2.2.2. Relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects

Emotional intelligence is recognized for its positive effect on various organizational aspects. Goleman’s [2] groundbreaking work, Emotional Intelligence, highlights the importance of emotional intelligence in both individual and organizational success. According to Goleman, this trait aids in comprehending and managing one’s own emotions and those of others, leading to enhanced conflict resolution, stress management, and adept handling of challenges in the workplace, thereby increasing job efficiency and satisfaction. Salovey and Mayer [1] emphasized that understanding the emotions of others enables more effective adaptation and response to their behavior. Mayer et al. [3] reviewed theories, findings, and practical applications of emotional intelligence, highlighting its pivotal role in addressing and resolving emotional issues. This, in turn, contributes to improved individual and organizational performance and overall benefits.

Emotional intelligence exerts positive effects on various organizational aspects, with one such aspect being organizational climate. Ashkanasy and Daus [28] indicated that emotional intelligence can affect organizational climate and promote positive organizational culture and emotional connections. Bono and Ilies [29] reported that leaders with higher emotional intelligence elicited positive emotional experience and emotional contagion among their teams, thereby enhancing the overall positivity of the organizational climate. Lian [30] found a positive correlation between emotional intelligence, both overall and in its various dimensions, and the overall school organizational climate, including its relevant aspects. Emotional intelligence influences organizational climate in a multifaceted manner, encompassing not only individuals’ emotional management and adaptive abilities but also the organizational culture, leadership, and relationships between members. Given these findings, organizations are encouraged to prioritize the development and enhancement of employees’ emotional intelligence, thereby establishing a favorable organizational climate that encompasses aspects including leadership, culture, and systems and improving the organizational performance and organizational members’ job satisfaction and work performance.

Organizational commitment is another crucial organizational aspect worth exploration. Wong and Law [31] asserted that both leaders’ and followers’ levels of emotional intelligence were positively correlated with employees’ work attitude and performance. Van Rooy and Viswesvaran [32] reported that emotional intelligence was positively correlated with work performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Chen and Yu [25] reported that individuals’ educational level affected their perceptions of organizational politics, organizational attachment, and emotional intelligence. Through an analysis of the interactive terms of organizational politics perceptions and emotional intelligence, the researchers identified that emotional intelligence moderated the relationship between organizational politics perceptions and organizational attachment. Kuo et al. [33] indicated that leadership had a positive effect on emotional intelligence and organizational commitment. Furthermore, emotional intelligence was found to positively affect organizational commitment and played a partial mediating role in the relationship between leadership and organizational commitment. Currently, Li and Janmaat [34] indicated that co-worker communication satisfaction serves as a mediator in the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior. These findings collectively suggest that emotional intelligence can empower employees to effectively manage situations related to organizational politics and strengthen their attachment to the organization, which are essential for organizational stability and growth.

Numerous studies have explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior. Chang et al. [35] reported that emotional intelligence had a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior and that this effect was mediated by well-being. Nguyen et al. [36] asserted that emotional intelligence had a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior, with this effect mediated by organizational justice. Generally, individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more inclined to participate in internal organizational activities and go above and beyond their formal job responsibilities to support organizational goals. These findings offer valuable insights for organizational management, helping them better understand the effects of emotional intelligence on employee performance and organizational behavior and develop corresponding management strategies.

Emotional intelligence has been identified as a key factor in reducing the risk of job burnout and enhancing job engagement and job satisfaction among employees, as demonstrated by numerous scholarly investigations. Cĉté and Morgan [37] indicated that emotion regulation could predict job satisfaction and turnover intention; employees with higher emotional intelligence tend to be better equipped to regulate their emotions, thereby reducing job burnout. Jordan et al. [38] revealed that employees with higher emotional intelligence were more adept at managing emotional labor, leading to reduced levels of emotional exhaustion. Schaufeli et al. [39] identified that emotional intelligence was positively related to job engagement and negatively related to job burnout. Liao and Song [40] identified that the environmental dimension of job stress positively influenced job burnout. Dong and Leou [41] reported that public servants’ public service motivation was influenced by emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Additionally, public service motivation exerted a partial mediating effect on the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Overall, the findings from these studies underscore the importance of emotional intelligence in the workplace. Developing and nurturing emotional intelligence among employees can substantially reduce the risk of job burnout and enhance their job engagement and satisfaction within the organization. In addition, Ghasemi et al. [42] investigated how personality traits and emotional intelligence influence safe behaviors in the workplace. Employers can utilize these two tools during the employment phase to prevent future human-related accidents. Consequently, organizations are encouraged to prioritize the development of emotional intelligence among their workforce.

The correlation between job burnout and emotional intelligence is influenced by workload. Ashkanasy and Daus [43] highlighted the role of emotional intelligence in assisting employees in effectively managing workload and stress, thereby reducing the risks of job burnout and exhaustion. Joseph and Newman [44] reported a negative correlation between emotional intelligence and workload; employees with higher emotional intelligence were more adept at addressing job-related stress and workload. Chen and Hsieh [16] revealed that workload and emotional intelligence (e.g., self-emotion appraisal, others’ emotion appraisal, and use of emotions) significantly interacted with workload and job characteristics (e.g., skill variety, task identity, task significance, and feedback). In summary, these results collectively emphasize the role of emotional intelligence in helping employees navigate workload-related stressors and reducing the risks of job burnout and psychological stress.

Emotional intelligence enables employees to effectively regulate their emotions, satisfy customer needs, and increase customer satisfaction and work performance. Cheng [45] discovered that emotional intelligence had a positive impact on work performance. Kao [46] highlighted the positive effect of transformational leadership on employees’ emotional intelligence. Hsiao [47] identified that customer service often involves emotional interactions. These emotional events can be influenced by service personnel’s perception of interpersonal injustice, which, in turn, affects their emotions and subsequently their service-oriented behavior.

In summary, emotional intelligence is closely correlated with various organizational aspects. Individuals with high emotional intelligence tend to excel in their work, maintain robust social relationships, and often experience high levels of job satisfaction and performance. In addition, emotional intelligence enables employees to more effectively address and resolve emotional problems, mitigate emotional exhaustion, and enhance work efficiency and organizational commitment. Consequently, employees with high emotional intelligence are better equipped to handle workplace stress and challenges, ultimately contributing to increased productivity and efficiency within organizations. They also tend to have lower turnover rates, further enhancing organizational performance. Thus, emotional intelligence helps individuals manage and address emotional challenges, adapt to organizational cultures and values, exhibit leadership qualities, and demonstrate innovative abilities, generating positive effects on various organizational aspects. Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H2: Emotional intelligence is significantly and positively correlated with organizational aspects.

2.2.3. Relationship between emotional intelligence and satisfaction

Zeidner et al. [48] identified that emotional intelligence is positively related to factors such as employee satisfaction, job performance, and leadership. Cĉté and Miners [49] further supported that emotional intelligence significantly and positively influences job satisfaction. Additionally, emotional intelligence emerged as a crucial predictor of job performance. Nelis et al. [50] demonstrated that emotional intelligence training enhanced individuals’ personal emotional intelligence and led to increased job satisfaction. Tseng [51] noted that emotional intelligence significantly moderated the effect of personality traits and emotional labor on job satisfaction. Min et al. [52] reported that emotional intelligence can enhance job satisfaction, which, in turn, contributes to improved organizational citizenship behavior. Dong and Leou [41] revealed that public service motivation had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction among public servants.

Emotional labor, a crucial component in discussions related to the relationship between emotional intelligence and satisfaction, has garnered significant research attention. Grandey [53] emphasized that emotional regulation significantly influenced job satisfaction and job stress. Wu [54] highlighted the significant correlation between the regulation of the emotion component of emotional intelligence and authoritarian leadership as well as job satisfaction. When emotional self-regulation was enhanced, the negative effect of authoritarian leadership on job satisfaction decreased. Thus, effective management of emotional labor and enhancement of emotional intelligence could help increase individuals’ job and life satisfaction.

Lopes et al. [55] reported that emotional intelligence and personality traits were predictors of social relationship quality. Importantly, the influence of emotional intelligence was independent of personality traits. Hsu [56] noted that customer service personnel who effectively managed their emotions tended to exhibit higher emotional intelligence, which, in turn, was positively correlated with job satisfaction. Chang [57] discovered that primary school senior students who had higher emotional intelligence had higher levels of well-being. Additionally, specific aspects of emotional intelligence, such as managing interpersonal relationships, effectively managing self-emotions, positively facing and managing emotions, adjusting emotions, and seeking social support, were identified as predictors of well-being.

Numerous studies have explored the relationships between well-being, satisfaction, and emotional intelligence. Ho [58] found a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and the well-being of married female primary school teachers. Moreover, the effect of emotional intelligence on well-being and satisfaction can be explained by other factors. For example, Hsu et al. [14] observed that employees’ use of emotions significantly and positively influenced their well-being. Hsu et al. [59] further identified that an increase in employees’ emotional intelligence reduced their job stress. Chuang and Lee [60] revealed a significant and positive correlation between positive psychology and emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence was found to have a significant and positive effect on learning efficiency. Additionally, emotional intelligence played a crucial mediating role in the relationship between positive psychology and learning efficiency, indicating that positive psychology contributes to enhanced learning efficiency through its influence on emotional intelligence. In addition, correlation analysis revealed that emotional intelligence dimensions were positively and moderately correlated with self-esteem and life satisfaction, while the associations between EI and social anxiety dimensions were small and negative [26].

In summary, emotional intelligence is closely correlated with satisfaction across various domains, including the workplace and personal life. Employees with high emotional intelligence in organizational settings tend to experience reduced emotional exhaustion and lower levels of work-related depression and are better equipped to manage job stress, thereby leading to their improved well-being and job satisfaction. This, in turn, fosters teamwork, enhances job performance, and promotes employee satisfaction and loyalty. In addition, improved emotional intelligence levels increase the satisfaction and well-being of individuals. Individuals with higher emotional intelligence can more effectively understand their own and others’ emotions and needs and address stress and challenges, thereby increasing their emotional stability and well-being. Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3: Emotional intelligence is positively correlated with satisfaction.

2.2.4. Relationship between emotional intelligence and stressors

Emotional intelligence, stressors, and well-being are crucial concepts in modern life. Studies have investigated the moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between stressors and well-being. Tugade and Fredrickson [61] revealed that emotional intelligence alleviated the negative impact of chronic stressors on well-being. Ho [58] identified that emotional intelligence was negatively correlated with parenting stress, and that parenting stress was negatively correlated with well-being. Studies have explored interventions aimed at increasing emotional intelligence and well-being, with the goal of mitigating the adverse effect of stressors. For example, psychological health intervention measures can be adopted to help reduce job stress and enhance well-being [62]. Hsu et al. [14] argued that job stress had a significant negative effect on well-being, whereas the use of emotions had a significant positive effect on well-being.

Workplace stress is a common problem that can significantly affect employees and organizations. Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in mitigating the adverse effects of stress on individuals. Law et al. [63] highlighted the importance of emotional intelligence in reducing workplace stress and increasing in job satisfaction. Wu [64] established a correlation between emotional intelligence and workplace stress. Additionally, workplace stress and emotional intelligence were identified to be predictors of job vigor. The interaction between workplace stress and emotional intelligence was also observed to influence job vigor. Wang et al. [65] identified a negative correlation between elementary school teachers’ exercise participation and job stress as well as between emotional intelligence and job stress. However, exercise participation and emotional intelligence were significantly and positively correlated. Liao and Song [40] identified that the environmental dimension of job stress had a positive effect on job burnout. Chen and Hsieh [16] identified that workload had a significant and positive effect on emotional exhaustion among public servants. In summary, these studies reveal the interactive relationships among emotional intelligence, workload, and workplace stress. Fostering the development of employee emotional intelligence is vital for organizations seeking to reduce the negative impacts of workload and stressors on their workforce. Enhanced emotional intelligence can lead to increased work efficiency and productivity, ultimately contributing to the growth of the enterprises and organizations.

In recent years, research on emotional intelligence and social support has attracted considerable attention due to their pivotal roles in reducing job stress, enhancing employee satisfaction, and increasing employee retention rates. Halbesleben and Buckley [66] indicated that in workplaces with elevated job stress, high levels of social support were associated with lower employee turnover rates. Chen and Aryee [67] identified that employees with high emotional intelligence were more likely to seek social support when facing challenges or stressors, which, in turn, reduced these employees’ perceptions of job stress. Chen et al. [24] asserted that social support significantly reduced job stress and turnover intentions. Moreover, job stress played a mediating role in the relationship between social support and turnover intention. Emotional intelligence had a significant moderating effect on the relationship between job stress and turnover intention.

In summary, the research findings consistently demonstrate a close and significant correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors. Individuals with higher emotional intelligence exhibit a greater ability to effectively address stressors and manage negative emotions, resulting in a reduction of the negative effects of stress on physiological and psychological well-being. Additionally, emotional intelligence can help individuals recognize, understand, and handle stressors, thereby increasing their satisfaction with and engagement in job and life. Therefore, the cultivation and development of emotional intelligence have crucial implications on the decrease in the negative effect of stressors. Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H4: Emotional intelligence is significantly and negatively correlated with stressors.

3. Methodology

3.1. Selection of research topic and scope

Once the research topic of emotional intelligence was established, the researchers of the present study conducted an extensive literature search. During the process of screening the literature, the researchers exercised careful judgment to select relevant studies to minimize the heterogeneity among the selected studies.

3.2. Search of relevant empirical studies

Computer-based searches were used to retrieve relevant literature pertaining to the research topic. The Chinese keyword “emotional intelligence” was used for the literature search, by using sources such as the National Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations established by National Central Library of Taiwan and the AiritiLibrary database (as of June 30, 2022). The search yielded a total of 111 studies—50 master’s and doctoral theses and 61 journal articles—relevant to emotional intelligence. To ensure the suitability of the research sample for subsequent data analysis, the sample selection was limited to empirical quantitative studies. Additionally, the selected studies were required to have complete research data, including sample sizes, means, t values, and F values necessary for effect size calculations. The total number of sample studies that conformed to the inclusion criteria was 28, which included 12 theses or dissertations and 16 journal articles.

3.3. Selection of classification codes

The variables analyzed in this study were organized into four distinct categories as follows:

a.
Document characteristics: This category encompassed data related to the document’s identification, such as study code, author(s), research topic, keywords, journal information, whether the source was a thesis or dissertation, year of publication, volume and issue numbers (if applicable), and page numbers.
b.
Sample characteristics: In this category, information regarding the identity and occupation of the study’s participants was included.
c.
Methodological characteristics: This category covered aspects related to the research methodology, including the research design, the sampling methods employed, and the specific outcome variables that were measured or assessed as part of the research.
d.
Descriptive data: This category consisted of quantitative data, including means, standard deviations, and statistical values such as r, F, t, and p values of independent variables, dependent variables, and mediating variables.

3.4. Analysis of relevant studies and coding and registration of various variables

The selected studies, which met the screening criteria, underwent a thorough analysis in which the variables adopted by various studies were systematically coded and registered in a table for further examination. In this meta-analysis, several multilevel variables were considered and explained as follows:

a.
Social support: The variables in this category included instrumental support, emotional support, informational support, and appraisal support.
b.
Organizational aspects: The variables in this category included school organization climate, organizational attachment, organizational politics perceptions, organizational citizenship behavior, job characteristics, workload, service contact, service motivation, teamwork, organizational commitment, and perceived human resources development.
c.
Satisfaction: The variables in this category included well-being, job satisfaction, family life satisfaction, and negotiation satisfaction.
d.
Stressor: The variables in this category included job stress, parenting stress, workplace stress, stress-coping strategies, peer stress, academic stress, learning stress, emotional exhaustion, and job burnout.

3.5. Calculation of effect size

After data collection, the present study employed CMA 3.0 software for data analysis. CMA is a powerful tool for analyzing and synthesizing data from various research sources. It facilitates the analysis of different statistical measures derived from diverse research data and allows for the calculation of key statistical metrics, including weighted mean effect sizes, variances, standard errors, confidence intervals (CIs), standardized residuals, and tests of homogeneity. During the execution of CMA, the means, standard deviations, sample size, t values, p values, or F values of each study were input as data entries.

4. Results

4.1. CMA of emotional intelligence and social support

After the literature screening process, a total of 26 studies were included as the research sample for this study. The results of the test of homogeneity revealed a Q value of 323.874, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). This finding led to the rejection of the null hypothesis of homogeneity, indicating that the selected studies were heterogeneous. Therefore, in the subsequent analysis, random-effects models were used to account for this heterogeneity. Furthermore, the I² value was calculated to be 92.281, implying high heterogeneity. This result indicated that the studies had high heterogeneity and the obtained mean explained 92.281% of the variance. The variance of the effect size possibly exceeded the sampling error range, suggesting that the results might have different effect sizes under the effect of a moderator or a mediator. Factors attributable to the effect size variation may include differences in research settings, including variations in standard protocols, research durations, and statistical analyses employed across the studies.

The effect size for the correlation between emotional intelligence and social support was 0.241, and the 95% CI for this effect size ranged from 0.188 to 0.293, indicating a moderate effect size. The effect size estimate was further converted to a Z value of 8.647, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). This result confirms that emotional intelligence is positively correlated with social support.

The results of the analysis of publication bias, presented in Fig. 1, indicate that the distribution of literature in the present study is slightly right-skewed. Both the observed plot (obs) and imputed results did not reveal any evidence of publication bias.

Fig. 1.

Funnel plot of emotional intelligence and social support.

The fail-safe number was employed to assess the presence of publication bias in the included studies. The analysis revealed that a total of 6792 studies would be required to overturn the results of the studies related to emotional intelligence and social support included in this analysis. The fail-safe number was calculated in this study to be 140. The results revealed that the studies included in the present study did not demonstrate publication bias.

In summary, the analysis revealed a moderate and positive correlation between emotional intelligence and social support, indicating a mutual interaction between these two variables; higher emotional intelligence led to higher social support and vice versa. Thus, H1 was supported.

4.2. CMA of emotional intelligence and organizational aspects

After the literature screening process, a total of 104 studies were included as the research sample for this study. The results of the test of homogeneity revealed a Q value of 863.967, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). This result led to the rejection of the null hypothesis of homogeneity, indicating that the included studies were heterogeneous. Therefore, in the subsequent analysis, random-effects models were used to account for this heterogeneity. Furthermore, the I² value was calculated to be 88.078, implying high heterogeneity. This result indicated that the included studies had high heterogeneity and the obtained mean explained 88.078% of the variance. The effect size for the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects was 0.154, with the 95% CI ranging from 0.127 to 0.182. This effect size was considered moderate. The effect size estimate was converted to a Z value of 10.870, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). The result confirms that emotional intelligence is positively correlated with organizational aspects.

The analysis results of publication bias, as depicted in Fig. 2, indicate that the distribution of literature in the present study is slightly right-skewed. Both the plot (obs) and imputed results revealed no publication bias among the studies.

Fig. 2.

Funnel plot of emotional intelligence and organizational aspects.

The fail-safe number analysis, which examined the potential publication bias in studies related to emotional intelligence and organizational aspects, indicated that to overturn the results obtained in this study, 27,693 studies would be required. The safe number was calculated to be 530, indicating that the studies included in the present study did not demonstrate publication bias.

In summary, the analysis revealed that emotional intelligence had a moderate and positive correlation with organizational aspects, indicating a mutual interaction between these two variables; higher emotional intelligence led to higher organizational aspects and vice versa. Thus, H2 was supported.

4.3. CMA of emotional intelligence and satisfaction

After the literature screening process, a total of 220 studies were included as the research sample for this study. The results of the test of homogeneity revealed a Q value of 7,532.017, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). The result implied the rejection of the null hypothesis of homogeneity. The studies were heterogeneous. Thus, random-effects were used to account for this heterogeneity. In addition, the I² value was 97.092, implying high heterogeneity. This result indicated that the studies had high heterogeneity and the obtained mean explained 97.092% of the variance. The effect size for the correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction was 0.380, and the 95% CI for this effect size was between 0.351 and 0.408, indicating a moderate effect size. The effect size estimate was further converted to a Z value of 23.680, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). This result confirms that emotional intelligence is positively correlated with satisfaction.

The results of the analysis of publication bias, presented in Fig. 3, indicate that the distribution of literature in the present study is slightly left-skewed. Both the plot (obs) and imputed results revealed no publication bias among the studies.

Fig. 3.

Funnel plot of emotional intelligence and satisfaction.

To overturn the results of the studies on emotional intelligence and satisfaction included in this analysis, 1,180,141 studies would be required. The safe number was calculated to be 1,110. The results revealed that the studies included in the present study did not demonstrated publication bias.

In summary, the analysis revealed that a moderate and positive correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction, indicating a mutual interaction between these two variables; higher emotional intelligence led to higher satisfaction and vice versa. Thus, H3 was supported.

4.4. CMA of emotional intelligence and stressors

After the literature screening process, a total of 123 studies were included as the research sample for this study. The results of the test of homogeneity revealed a Q value of 1,449.326, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). This finding led to the rejection of the null hypothesis of homogeneity, indicating that the selected studies were heterogeneous. Therefore, in the subsequent analysis, random-effects models were used to account for this heterogeneity. In addition, the I² value was calculated to be 91.582, implying high heterogeneity. This result indicated that the studies had high heterogeneity and the obtained mean explained 91.582% of the variance. The effect size for the correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors was –0.134, and the 95% CI for this effect size was between –0.159 and –0.108, indicating a small effect size. The effect size estimate was further converted to a Z value of –10.165, which reached statistical significance (p < .001). This result confirms that emotional intelligence is negatively correlated with stressors.

The results of the analysis of publication bias, presented in Fig. 4, indicate that the distribution of literature in the present study is slightly left-skewed. Both the plot obs and imputed results revealed no publication bias among the studies.

Fig. 4.

Funnel plot of emotional intelligence and stressors.

Table 1.

Results of the analysis of the correlations between emotional intelligence and various variables (Random-Effects Models).

Variable	Sample size	Effect size	95% CI			Test of homogeneity		Fail-Safe N
			LL	UL	Z	Q	I²
Social support	26	0.241	0.188	0.293	8.647^***	323.874	92.281	6792
Organizational aspects	104	0.154	0.127	0.182	10.870^***	863.967^***	88.078	27693
Satisfaction	220	0.380	0.351	0.408	23.680^***	7532.017^***	97.092	1180141
Stressors	123	–0.134	–0.159	–0.108	–10.165^***	1449.326^***	91.582	43059

^***p < .001. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.

To overturn the results of the studies related to emotional intelligence and satisfaction included in this analysis, 43,059 studies would be required. The safe number was calculated to be 625. The results revealed that the studies included in the present study did not demonstrate publication bias.

In summary, emotional intelligence had a low and negative correlation with stressors, implying a weak mutual interaction between emotional intelligence and stressors variables. Higher emotional intelligence led to lower effect of the stressors. Conversely, when the effect of the stressors decreased, the emotional intelligence increased. Thus, H4 was supported.

4.5. Conclusion

This study examined the correlation between emotional intelligence and social support, yielding an average effect size of 0.241. The 95% confidence interval for this effect size ranged from 0.188 to 0.293. The estimated effect size was converted to a Z-value of 8.647, reaching statistical significance at p < .001. The I² value was determined to be 92.281, indicating a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 92.281% of the variance, with approximately 7.719% of the variance attributed to random error. The effect size fell within the medium range (0.10 < r < 0.50), suggesting a correlation between emotional intelligence and social support.

The analysis of the correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects revealed an effect size of 0.154, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.127 to 0.182. The estimated effect size was converted to a Z-value of 10.875, reaching statistical significance (p < 0.001), indicating a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects. The I² value was determined to be 88.078, reflecting a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 88.078% of the variance, with approximately 11.922% of the variance attributed to random error. The effect size fell within the medium range (0.10 < r < 0.50), implying a correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects.

The analysis of the correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction revealed an effect size of 0.380, with a 95% confidence interval between 0.351 and 0.408. The estimated effect size was converted to a Z-value of 23.680, reaching significance (p < 0.001). The I² value was determined to be 97.092, reflecting a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 97.092% of the variance, with approximately 2.908% attributed to random error. The effect size fell within the medium range (0.10 < r < 0.50), suggesting a correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction.

The analysis of the correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors yielded an effect size of –0.134, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from –0.159 to –0.108. The estimated effect size was converted to a Z-value of –10.165, reaching significance (p < 0.001), indicating a negative correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors. The I² value was determined to be 91.582, suggesting a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 91.582% of the variance, with approximately 8.418% attributed to random error. The effect size fell within the small range (r≤0.10), suggesting a correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors.

The aforementioned results indicate a moderate and positive correlation between emotional intelligence and social support, illustrating a mutual influence trend. With an increase in emotional intelligence, social support also increases, and vice versa. Emotional intelligence exhibits a moderate and positive correlation with organizational aspects, underscoring its impact on organizational dynamics. Individuals with high emotional intelligence tend to be positively influenced by organizational aspects, contributing to the enhancement of their emotional intelligence. Additionally, emotional intelligence is moderately and positively correlated with satisfaction, suggesting a positive impact on satisfaction. Individuals with high emotional intelligence often experience greater satisfaction, and increased satisfaction contributes to improved emotional intelligence. Lastly, emotional intelligence exhibited a weak negative correlation with stressors, indicating a limited impact on stressors. Individuals with high emotional intelligence are typically more adept at managing stressors, mitigating their influence on emotional intelligence. Conversely, increased stressors can have a modest negative impact on emotional intelligence.

5. Discussion and suggestions

5.1. Discussion

5.1.1. Positive correlation between emotional intelligence and social support

This study explored the correlation between emotional intelligence and social support. Findings from various studies have revealed the positive correlation between emotional intelligence and social support. Hsiung [68] identified that compared with individuals with an external locus of control, those with an internal locus of control received greater social support and had higher emotional intelligence, indirectly resulting in their higher academic performance. Chang et al. [35] revealed that obtaining emotional social support enhanced the positive effect of relational psychological contract on work–life balance. Additionally, high emotional intelligence had a positive effect on the work–life balance. These findings emphasize the role of emotional support and effective emotion management in maintaining a healthy work–life balance. Chen et al. [24] identified that instrumental support and emotional support within the framework of social support significantly reduced employees’ job stress and turnover intention. Additionally, emotional intelligence had a significant moderating effect on the relationship between emotional intelligence and job stress and turnover intention. Effective social support and emotional regulation competencies were crucial for reducing job stress and turnover intention, especially for employees in high-pressure work environments such as the financial industry.

The present study’s findings align with those of the aforementioned literature, indicating a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and social support. The mean effect size was 0.241, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.188 to 0.293. The estimated effect size was converted into a Z-value of 8.647, reaching significance (p < 0.001). The I² value was determined to be 92.281, indicating a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 92.281% of the variance, with approximately 7.719% attributed to random error. The medium effect size (0.10 < r<0.50) suggested a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and social support. The study explored four dimensions of social support: emotional support (providing care or trust), instrumental support (offering financial or material aid), informational support (giving advice or information), and appraisal support (offering affirmation or feedback). A literature review and meta-analysis affirmed that emotional intelligence positively influences all these dimensions.

5.1.2. Positive correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects

This study explored the correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects. Findings from various studies have highlighted the positive correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects. Min et al. [52] identified a significant and positive impact of emotional intelligence on organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction. Higher levels of job satisfaction, in turn, further enhance employees’ organizational citizenship behavior. Cheng and Shiu [69] indicated that emotional intelligence and teamwork significantly and positively influenced innovative behavior. Additionally, emotional intelligence had a significant and positive effect on teamwork. Chen and Yu [25] analyzed the interaction between organizational politics perceptions and emotional intelligence and revealed that emotional intelligence moderated the relationship between organizational politics perceptions and organizational attachment. Moreover, the dimension of emotions was found to play a crucial moderating role in this relationship. Kuo et al. [33] identified a positive effect of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment. Additionally, emotional intelligence had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between leadership and organizational commitment. Liao and Song [40] reported that as individuals’ emotional intelligence and perceived human resources development increased, the curve representing the relationship between job stress and burnout became flattened. Dong and Leou [41] identified that public service motivation had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction and moderated the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Hsiao [47] indicated that emotional intelligence had a moderating effect on the relationship between service-related emotional events and negative emotions.

The findings of the present study align with those of the aforementioned literature, indicating a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects. The mean effect size was 0.154, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.127 to 0.182. The estimated effect size was converted into a Z-value of 10.875, reaching significance (p < 0.001), implying a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects. The I² value was determined to be 88.078, indicating a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 88.078% of the variance, with approximately 11.922% attributed to random error. The medium effect size (0.10 < r<0.50) suggested a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational aspects. The organizational aspects examined in the study included organizational climate, organizational attachment, perceptions of organizational politics, citizenship behavior, job characteristics, workload, service contact, service motivation, teamwork, organizational commitment, and perceived human resources development. A literature review and meta-analysis revealed that emotional intelligence positively influences all these aspects.

5.1.3. Positive correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction

This study explored the correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction. Findings from various studies have highlighted the positive correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction. Chung and Hsieh [70] indicated that emotional intelligence was positively correlated with negotiation satisfaction. Wu [54] and Tsai [71] reported that individuals with high emotional intelligence exhibited elevated levels of job satisfaction. In a study of the relationship between emotional intelligence and well-being, Ho [58] identified that emotional intelligence was positively correlated with well-being among married female primary school teachers and that their emotional intelligence could predict their well-being. Chen [72] identified a positive relationship between students’ emotional intelligence and their well-being. Additionally, emotional intelligence led to an increase in employees’ job satisfaction, thereby enhancing their ability to demonstrate organizational citizenship behavior. Hsu et al. [14] found that the use of emotions significantly and positively affected the dimension of well-being in satisfaction among employees. Furthermore, employees’ emotional intelligence was positively correlated with well-being, emphasizing its role in enhancing overall job satisfaction and well-being. Dong and Leou [41] revealed that public service motivation partially mediated the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction among public servants.

The findings of the present study align with those of the aforementioned literature, indicating a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction. The mean effect size was 0.380, with a 95% confidence interval between 0.351 and 0.408. The estimated effect size was converted into a Z-value of 23.680, reaching significance (p < 0.001), suggesting a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction. The I² value was determined to be 97.092, indicating a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 97.092% of the variance, with approximately 2.908% attributed to random error. The medium effect size (0.10 < r<0.50) suggested a correlation between emotional intelligence and satisfaction. The dimensions of satisfaction explored in the study included were happiness, job satisfaction, family life satisfaction, negotiation satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. A literature review and meta-analysis revealed that emotional intelligence positively influences all these dimensions.

5.1.4. Negative correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors

This study explored the correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors. Findings from various studies have revealed the negative correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors. Both Liao and Song [40] and Hsu et al. [14] reported a negative correlation between emotional intelligence and job stress. Ho [58] identified that emotional intelligence was negatively related to parenting stress. Liao and Chen [73] demonstrated that when parents adopted a parenting method that generated stress, the students’ emotional intelligence performance might decrease. Liao and Chen [73] reported that emotional intelligence was negatively related to peer stress, academic stress, and overall learning stress. Yang et al. [74] highlighted that basketball players’ emotional intelligence and stress-coping strategies substantially differed across different background variables and their emotional intelligence and stress-coping strategies had predictive effects on their exercise performance. Chen and Hsieh [16] found that workload was positively related to emotional exhaustion, that emotional intelligence played a role in mitigating this relationship, and that certain dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as self-emotion appraisal, others’ emotion appraisal, and use of emotions, significantly correlated with job characteristics (e.g., skill variety, task identity, task significance, and feedback). Liao and Song [40] identified that emotional intelligence and perceived human resources development might mitigate the relationship between job stress and job burnout.

The findings of the present study align with those of the aforementioned literature, indicating a significantly negative correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors. The mean effect size was –0.134, with a 95% confidence interval between –0.159 and –0.108. The estimated effect size was converted into a Z-value of –10.165, reaching significance (p < 0.001), suggesting a negative correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors. The I² value was determined to be 91.582, indicating a high degree of heterogeneity, where the mean explained 91.582% of the variance, with approximately 8.418% attributed to random error. The small effect size (r≤0.10) suggested a correlation between emotional intelligence and stressors. The stressor dimensions explored in this study included job stress, parenting stress, workplace stress, stress-coping strategies, parental stress, peer stress, academic stress, learning stress, emotional exhaustion, and job burnout. A literature review and meta-analysis revealed that emotional intelligence negatively influences all these dimensions.

5.2. Suggestions

5.2.1. Social support

Individual Level. Individuals can practice maintaining an open and sensitive attitude while attentively listening to others during conversations, focusing on their body language, facial expressions, and intonations, to better understand their emotions. Moreover, individuals can practice expressing their emotions in everyday life and engage in activities that promote effective communication, such as active listening and empathy exercises, to improve the ability to effectively express emotions. To cultivate emotional regulation competencies, individuals can also incorporate practices such as meditation, deep breathing, and yoga, as well as sharpen their problem-solving skills, such as resource searching, problem analysis, and action plan development.

Organizational Level. Organizations can offer employees various training programs, such as emotional intelligence and teamwork courses, to help them gain a deeper understanding of emotional dynamics and improve their ability to effectively respond to others’ emotional needs. Furthermore, organizations should focus on strengthening the social support system among employees, fostering emotional sensitivity among organizational members. Cultivating a positive and open communication culture is essential, which encourage employees to exchange and share their emotions and thoughts in open and diverse manners. Additionally, organizations can offer employees training in relevant communication skills, such as active listening and expression of emotions, to strengthen the social support system among employees, thereby promoting effective communication within the organization. The creation of supportive work environments can encourage mutual care and support between employees. For example, organizations should establish inclusive and diverse work environments that respect cultural differences and diversity. Moreover, they can offer a range of employee support programs, such as professional psychological health counseling services and flexible work arrangements, to assist employees in managing stress, addressing emotional needs, and enhancing their overall work performance.

5.2.2. Organizational aspects

Individual Level. Individuals can enhance self-cognition by using practices such as self-reflection and self-evaluation. Self-regulation skills, crucial for managing emotions, can be cultivated through activities such as meditation, deep breathing exercises, and physical exercise. These methods can help alleviate stress and emotional strain. Additionally, individuals can foster empathy and social skills by adopting techniques such as active listening, effective expression of emotions, and demonstrating understanding and respect for others’ perspectives.

Organizational Level. Organizations can implement comprehensive emotional intelligence training programs that cover emotional recognition, effective expression of emotions, and emotional regulation skills, to enable employees to more effectively manage their emotions and understand others’ emotions. Creating a supportive work environment is crucial for fostering emotional intelligence, which includes providing appropriate work resources and facilities, nurturing supportive work relationships, promoting effective communication channels, and encouraging members to participate in socially and culturally enriching activities. Leaders’ emotional intelligence can positively influence the organization as a whole, because leaders’ emotional status and emotional management methods can affect the emotional intelligence and work performance of subordinates. Thus, organizations should adopt approaches, including training, evaluation, and leader selection, to increase the emotional intelligence of leaders.

5.2.3. Satisfaction

Individual Level. Individuals with high emotional intelligence have the ability to effectively understand their own and others’ emotions and needs and effectively manage stress and challenges, thereby enhancing personal emotional stability and well-being. To bolster emotional intelligence, individuals can engage in activities such as reading relevant literature and participating in emotional intelligence courses. Developing emotional management skills can enable individuals to more adeptly address various situations and mitigate the effects of anxiety and anger. For example, techniques such as deep breathing and relaxation can enhance their active emotional management competencies. Establishing favorable emotional and interpersonal relationships can increase individuals’ emotional intelligence and satisfaction. Active involvement in social activities, the establishment of positive relationships with others, and the acquisition of effective communications techniques can ultimately help establish positive emotional and interpersonal relationships. Seeking external resources and support can help individuals more effectively manage emotional difficulties and stress. Individuals can seek counsel from family, friends, or professionals such as psychotherapists and career planners.

Organizational Level. Organizations can play a pivotal role in enhancing employees’ emotional intelligence by offering specialized training programs aimed at fostering a deeper understanding of emotions and effective emotion management. This, in turn, enhances employees’ abilities to effectively express emotions and comprehension abilities. To further fortify individual and collective satisfaction and well-being, organizations can design and implement tools and strategies aimed at developing emotional intelligence among employees. The creation of supportive work environments is paramount in this endeavor, encompassing initiatives such as establishing systems for providing psychological health support services and actively promoting employees’ attainment of a healthy work–life balance. By prioritizing the cultivation of emotional intelligence within the leadership ranks, organizations can enhance employees’ well-being and job satisfaction. Emotional intelligence among leaders is closely correlated with employee satisfaction. Thus, investing in leadership emotional intelligence training and development programs can yield substantial benefits. Moreover, organizations can foster teamwork and collaboration among employees, which can enhance employees’ emotional intelligence and job satisfaction.

5.2.4. Stressors

Individual Level. Individuals can harness various techniques, including deep breathing, meditation, and auto-suggestions, to maintain composure in the face of stress and proactively manage it, thereby mitigating the effect of negative emotions. Cultivating and nurturing positive emotions and attitudes are essential for alleviating stress and enhancing emotional intelligence. To achieve this, individuals are recommended to actively cultivate positive emotions as part of their daily routines. Studies have indicated that social support can reduce the burden of various stressors and negative emotions on individuals. Thus, individuals are recommended to foster supportive social connections, nurturing favorable relationships with family members, friends, and colleagues.

Organizational Level. To enhance employees’ emotional intelligence and equip them with the skills to effectively navigate various stressors, organizations can offer training programs related to emotional cognition, effective expression of emotions, and emotional management. These training initiatives can incorporate practical exercises such as situation-based simulations and role playing, enabling employees to develop the proficiency to handle various challenges at the workplace. Organizations should strive to foster an open and positive work environment, enabling employees to perceive the support available to them and mitigating the impact of job-related stress. Encouraging mutual support and collaboration among employees and offering meaningful tasks and growth opportunities are vital components of creating such an environment. Additionally, organizations can promote the implementation of various emotional self-regulation strategies such as positive thinking, physical exercise, and relaxation techniques, thereby enabling employees to effectively manage job-related stress. Providing employees with essential and diverse work resources, including relevant tools and support systems, is paramount for reducing job stress and promoting both efficiency and well-being. Lastly, organizations should prioritize the cultivation of leaders with high emotional intelligence who can assist and guide employees in navigating their emotions and coping with workplace stressors.

5.3. Recommendations for future research

This study selected samples from domestic journal articles, master’s theses, and doctoral dissertations. After a rigorous screening process based on the meta-analysis criteria, 28 samples were ultimately selected for analysis. Future meta-analyses are recommended to include more journal articles and international literature. This expansion in scope would increase the sample size, allowing for a more comprehensive and comparative analysis of emotional intelligence across different cultural contexts. Such in-depth investigations can lead to the inference of a causal relationship closer to practical scenarios.

This study adopted Rosenthal’s [75] meta-analysis technique from a pool of available methods. Future studies are encouraged to adopt varied meta-analysis methods based on their specific research objectives and nature of their data.

Through meta-analysis, this study examined the correlations of emotional intelligence with social support, organizational aspects, satisfaction, and stressors. Future research is recommended to consider additional factors, such as individual, environmental, and cultural differences. Furthermore, investigating the correlations between these variables and their related subdimensions (e.g., school organizational climate, organizational attachment, perceptions of organizational politics, citizenship behavior, job characteristics, workload, service contact, service motivation, teamwork, perceived human resources development, job satisfaction, family life satisfaction, happiness, negotiation satisfaction, job stress, parenting stress, workplace stress, stress-coping strategies, parental stress, peer stress, academic stress, learning stress, emotional exhaustion, and job burnout) is recommended. Future studies can also contribute by proposing more effective strategies and recommendations based on their findings.

5.4. Limitations

According to the meta-analysis criteria, only literature with adequate data can be included. However, the collected research samples were not entirely complete due to the absence of publication or disclosure for some. Consequently, this study was unable to obtain all original empirical data necessary for conducting meta-analysis calculations.

The scope of this study was based on the research included in the meta-analysis, with a primary focus on psychological or behavioral expressions within the workplace setting. Given the diverse array of industries, this study could not cover the entire spectrum of workplace environments.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

Not applicable.

ORCID iD

Yin-Che Chen

Ethical approval

This noninterventional study did not require ethical approval due to its design, nor did it take place within any private or protected space. Therefore, no specific permissions were required to conduct the study in the geographical regions specific to this study.

Informed consent

This study used data from published journals and theses. Informed consent was not required due to the nature of the research.

Conflict of interest

The researchers declare no competing interests.

Funding

Not applicable.

Appendix

Appendix 1. Overview of Research Samples for Meta-Analysis on Emotional Intelligence.

Author	Year	Research Method	Participant
Chen, C. L.	2000	Questionnaire survey	Sixth-grade elementary school students in Kaohsiung and Pingtung
Man, L. F.	2002	Questionnaire survey	Department store employees in Taichung
Lee, P. S.	2005	Questionnaire survey	Fourth and sixth-grade elementary school students in Tainan and Kaohsiung
Wen, H. H.	2006	Questionnaire survey	Married female teachers with children who simultaneously work in administrative roles at public elementary schools in southern Taiwan
Hsu, C. F.	2006	Questionnaire survey	Customer service personnel in a customer service company
Tsai, H. H.	2007	Questionnaire survey	Kindergarten teachers in Taichung City
Hsiung, Y. C.	2007	Questionnaire survey	Third-year public junior high school students in Banqiao
Wu, W. C.	2007	Questionnaire survey	Administrative staff in private universities in Tainan
Lien, C. H.	2008	Questionnaire survey	Public elementary school teachers in Tainan and Kaohsiung
Wu, T. Y.	2008	Questionnaire survey	Employees working for Taiwanese companies
Chang, S. M.	2008	Questionnaire survey	Fifth- and sixth-grade public elementary school students in Changhua County
Tsung, T. C. and Hsieh, M. H.	2008	Questionnaire survey	Members of nine organizations from northern, central, and southern Taiwan
He, W. T.	2009	Questionnaire survey	Female teachers who are currently employed and married with at least one child studying in high school or below in Kaohsiung City
Chang, H. T.; Liou J. W.; and Yang, H. N.	2010	Questionnaire survey	Service personnel in the catering department of tourist hotels in Taiwan
Chen, L. H.	2010	Questionnaire survey	Fifth- and sixth-grade public elementary school students in Kaohsiung City
Yang, C. C.; Wu, Y. X., Cheng, B. Y.; and Liu, L. W.	2013	Questionnaire survey	Players in the University Basketball Association
Wang, H. Y.; Huang, D. H.; and Wei, L. M.	2014	Questionnaire survey	Teachers in public elementary schools in Taoyuan County for the 2015–2016 academic year
Chen, C. Y.; Leu, B. Y.; and Chuang, Y. C.	2015	Questionnaire survey	Employees in Taiwan’s financial industry
Min J.; Wu, I. F; and Hsu, S. C.	2015	Questionnaire survey	Employees in technology companies in Taiwan
Liao, Y. T. and Chen, T. L.	2016	Questionnaire survey	Hospitality students from senior high schools in northern, central, southern, and eastern Taiwan
Chen, Y. C. and Yu, Y. C.	2017	Questionnaire survey	Employees in Taiwan’s high-tech industry
Cheng, C. J. and Shiu, S. C.	2017	Questionnaire survey	Students taking creative courses in universities of science and technology
Chen, Y. C. and Hsieh M. T.	2018	Questionnaire survey	Eligible government employees
Liao, W. C. and Song, C. J.	2018	Questionnaire survey	Metro drivers
Hsu, S. W.; Yen, W. S.; Wu, C. M.; Huang, S. Y.; and Zheng, R.	2019	Questionnaire survey	Formal employees with more than one year of service in five-star hotels
Hsu, S. W.; Chang, H. H.; Cheng, S. S.; Lou, M. G.; and Zeng, R.	2020	Questionnaire survey	Employees in international tourist hotels
Dong, H. K. and Leou, C. H.	2020	Questionnaire survey	Government employees in the Executive Yuan and its affiliated government bodies
Hsiao, W. J.	2020	Questionnaire survey	Service personnel with a high level of interaction with customers

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