Building upon the self-concept research and the model of motivation process, this study was designed to explore the self-images desired by National Football League (NFL) fans and examine the impact of such desires on fan behavior. Through three research phases, this study revealed the factor structure of fans’ desired self-image in NFL team fanship and confirmed its key role in influencing fan identity and team-related consumptions. In particular, athletic image sufficiently provided by NFL team fanship could stimulate positive fan behavior, whereas social attractiveness that was in a shortage would hold back team-related consumptions. Discussion focused on the implications for branding practices of sport teams, corporate sponsors, and professional athletes.
AakerD. A., & JoachimsthalerE. (2000). The brand relationship spectrum: The key to the brand architecture challenge. California Management Review, 42(4), 8–23.
2.
AraiA., KoY. J., & KaplanidouK. (2013). Athlete brand image: Scale development and model test. European Sport Management Quarterly, 13(4), 383–403.
3.
AraiA., KoY. J., & RossS. (2014). Branding athletes: Exploration and conceptualization of athlete brand image. Sport Management Review, 17(2), 97–106.
BiscaiaR., HedlundD. P., DicksonG., & NaylorM. (2018). Conceptualising and measuring fan identity using stakeholder theory. European Sport Management Quarterly, 18(4), 459–481.
6.
BranscombeN. R., & WannD. L. (1992). Role of identification with a group, arousal, categorization processes, and self-esteem in sports spectator aggression. Human Relations, 45(10), 1013–1033.
7.
BraunsteinJ. R., & RossS. D. (2010). Brand personality in sport: Dimension analysis and general scale development. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 19(1), 8–16.
8.
BraunsteinJ. R., & ZhangJ. J. (2005). Dimensions of athletic star power associated with Generation Y sports consumption. International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 6(4), 242–267.
9.
BrewerM. B. (2001). The many faces of socialidentity: Implications for political psychology. Political Psychology, 22(1), 115–125.
10.
BrownM. T., RascherD. A., NagelM. S., & McEvoyC. D. (2017). Financial management in the sport industry. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway.
11.
ChienP. M., CornwellT. B., & PappuR. (2011). Sponsorship portfolio as a brand-image creation strategy. Journal of Business Research, 64(2), 142–149.
12.
CollinsA. M., & LoftusE. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82(6), 407–428.
13.
DanielsJ., KunkelT., & KargA. (2019). New brands: Contextual differences and development of brand associations over time. Journal of Sport Management, 33(2), 133–147.
14.
KaplanM. D., YurtO., GuneriB., & KurtulusK. (2010). Branding places: Applying brand personality concept to cities. European Journal of Marketing, 44(9/10), 1286–1304.
15.
EkinciY., & HosanyS. (2006). Destination personality: An application of brand personality to tourism destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 45(2), 127–139.
16.
ErdoganB. Z., BakerM. J., & TaggS. (2001). Selecting celebrity endorsers: The practitioner's perspective. Journal of Advertising Research, 41(3), 39–48.
17.
ErvinL. H., & StrykerS. (2001). Theorizing the relationship between self-esteem and identity. In OwensT. J., StrykerS., & GoodmanN. (Eds.), Extending self-esteem theory and research: Sociological and psychological currents (pp. 29–55). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
18.
EscalasJ. E., & BettmanJ. R. (2003). You are what they eat: The influence of reference groups on consumers’ connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13(3), 339–348.
19.
FiskeS. T., & PavelchakM. A. (1986). Category-based versus piecemeal-based affective responses: Developments in schema-triggered affect. In SorrentinoR. M. & HigginsE. T. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 1, pp. 167–203). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
FunkD. (2008). Consumer behaviour in sport and events. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
22.
GandiniA. (2016). Digital work: Self-branding and social capital in the freelance knowledge economy. Marketing Theory, 16(1), 123–141.
23.
GladdenJ. M., & FunkD. C. (2002). Developing an understanding of brand associations in team sport: Empirical evidence from consumers of professional sport. Journal of Sport Management, 16(1), 54–81.
24.
GoffmanE. (1959). Thepresentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Doubleday.
25.
HairJ. F., BlackW., BabinB. J., & AndersonR. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
26.
HasaanA., KeremK., BiscaiaR., & AgyemangK. (2018). A conceptual framework to understand the creation of athlete brand and its implications. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 18(3), 169–198.
27.
HoyerW. D., & Mac InnisD. J. (2004). Consumer behavior. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
28.
JacobsonB. (2003). The social psychology of the creation of a sports fan identity: A theoretical review of the literature. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sports Psychology, 5(2).
29.
KahnemanD., & TverskyA. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–292.
30.
KangJ. H. (2002). A structural model of image-based and utilitarian decision-making processes for participant sport consumption. Journal of Sport Management, 16(1), 173–189.
31.
KaplanidouK., & GibsonH. J. (2012). Event image and traveling parents’ intentions to attend youth sport events: A test of the reasoned action model. European Sport Management Quarterly, 12(1), 3–18.
32.
KimY., & LeeJ. L. (2018). Common mistakes in statistical and methodological practices of sport management research. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 23 (4), 314–324 .
33.
KlineR. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford press.
34.
KwakD. H., KimY. K., & HirtE. R. (2011). Exploring the role of emotions on sport consumers’ behavioral and cognitive responses to marketing stimuli. European Sport Management Quarterly, 11(3), 225–250.
35.
KwakD. H., & KangJ. H. (2009). Symbolic purchase in sport: The roles of self-image congruence and perceived quality. Management Decision, 47(1), 85–99.
36.
KunkelT., DoyleJ. P., FunkD. C., DuJ., & McDonaldH. (2016). The development and change of brand associations and their influence on team loyalty over time. Journal of Sport Management, 30(2), 117–134.
37.
KunkelT., FunkD. C., & LockD. (2017). The effect of league brand on the relationship between the team brand and behavioral intentions: A formative approach examining brand associations and brand relationships. Journal of Sport Management, 31(4), 317–332.
38.
LaverieD. A., & ArnettD. B. (2000). Factors affecting fan attendance: The influence of identity salience and satisfaction. Journal of Leisure Research, 32(2), 225–246.
39.
LavidgeR. J., & SteinerG. A. (1961). A model for predictive measurements of advertising effectiveness. Journal of Marketing, 25(6), 59–62.
40.
LeeH. S., & ChoC. H. (2012). Sporting event personality: Scale development and sponsorship implications. International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 14(1), 51–68.
41.
LeeJ., & FerreiraM. (2011). Cause-related marketing: The role of team identification in consumer choice of team licensed products. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 20(3), 157–169.
42.
LockD., & HeereB. (2017). Identity crisis: A theoretical analysis of ‘team identification'research. European Sport Management Quarterly, 17(4), 413–435.
43.
MaguireE. (2015). Self-branding, hotness, and girlhood in the video blogs of Jenna Marbles. Biography, 38(1), 72–86.
44.
MarwickA. E. (2010). Status update: Celebrity, publicity and self-branding in Web 2.0. (Doctoral dissertation), New York University, New York, NY.
45.
McDanielS. R. (1999). An investigation of match-up effects in sport sponsorship advertising: The implications of consumer advertising schemas. Psychology & Marketing, 16(2), 163–184.
46.
Meyers-LevyJ., & TyboutA. M. (1997). Context effects at encoding and judgment in consumption settings: The role of cognitive resources. Journal of Consumer Research, 24(1), 1–14.
ParkC. W., JaworskiB. J., & MaclnnisD. J. (1986). Strategic brand concept-image management. Journal of Marketing, 50(4), 135–145.
50.
ParkJ. A., & DittmoreS. (2014). The relationship among social media consumption, team identification, and behavioral intentions. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 14, 331–336.
51.
PlummerJ. T. (2000). How personality makes a difference. Journal of Advertising Research, 40(6), 79–83.
52.
RampersadH. K. (2008). A new blueprint for powerful and authentic personal branding. Performance Improvement, 47(6), 34–37.
53.
RatcliffR., & McKoonG. (1988). A retrieval theory of priming in memory. Psychological Review, 95(3), 385–408.
54.
ResnickS. M., ChengR., SimpsonM., & LourençoF. (2016). Marketing in SMEs: A “4Ps” self-branding model. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 22(1), 155–174 .
55.
RosenbergM. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York, NY: Basic Books.
56.
RossS. D., JamesJ. D., & VargasP. (2006). Development of a scale to measure team brand associations in professional sport. Journal of Sport Management, 20(2), 260–279.
57.
SchiffmanL. G., & KanukL. L. (2004). Consumer behavior (8 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
58.
SedikidesC., GaertnerL., & ToguchiY. (2003). Pancultural self-enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 60–79.
59.
ShamirB., & RuskinH. (1984). Sport participation vs. sport spectatorship: Two modes of leisure behavior. Journal of Leisure Research, 16(1), 9–21.
60.
SmithJ. B., & ColgateM. (2007). Customer value creation: A practical framework. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 15(1), 7–23.
StoneG. P. (1971). Games, sport, and power (Vol. 25). New York, NY: EP Duton.
63.
SwannW. B.Jr. (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In SulsJ. & GreenwaldA. G. (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 2, pp. 33–66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
64.
TrailG. T., AndersonD. F., & LeeD. (2017). A longitudinal study of team-fan role identity on self-reported attendance behavior and future intentions. Journal of Amateur Sport, 3(1), 27–49.
65.
TrailG., & JamesJ. (2001). The motivation scale for sport consumption: Assessment of the scale's psychometric properties. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 24(1), 108–127.
66.
WalkerM., KentA., & VincentJ. (2010). Communicating socially responsible initiatives: An analysis of US professional teams. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 19(4), 187–195.
67.
WangJ. J., WannD. L., LuZ., & ZhangJ. J. (2018). Self-expression through sport participation: Exploring participant desired self-image. European Sport Management Quarterly, 18(5), 583–606.
68.
WangJ. J., ZhangS., & ZhangJ. J. (2019). Moderating effects of gender and life cycle in the relationship between desired self-image and sport participation behavior: A multi-group analysis. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 23(4), 337–350.
69.
WannD. L. (1995). Preliminary validation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 19(4), 377–396.
70.
WannD. L. (1997). Sport psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
71.
WannD. L., BayensC., & DriverA. (2004). Likelihood of attending a sporting event as a function of ticket scarcity and team identification. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13(4), 209–215.
