Ongoing drug use and outcomes from highly active antiretroviral therapy among injection drug users in a Canadian setting

Hammer S.M. , Squires K.E. , Hughes M.D. A controlled trial of two nucleoside analogues plus indinavir in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection and CD4 cell counts of 200 per cubic millimeter or less. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 725–733.

CASCADE Collaboration. Determinants of survival following HIV-1 seroconversion after the introduction of HAART. Lancet 2003; 362: 1267–1274.

Hogg R.S. , Yip B. , Kully C. Improved survival among HIV-infected patients after initiation of triple-drug antiretroviral regimens. CMAJ 1999; 160: 659–665.

Mocroft A. , Ledergerber B. , Katlama C. Decline in the AIDS and death rates in the EuroSIDA study: an observational study. Lancet 2003; 362: 22–29.

Wood E. , Montaner J.S. , Tyndall M.W. , Schechter M.T. , O'Shaughnessy M.V. , Hogg R.S. II . Prevalence and correlates of untreated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection among persons who have died in the era of modern antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2003; 188: 1164–1170.

Bruce R.D. , Altice F.L. Clinical care of the HIV-infected drug user. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2007; 21: 149–179.

Wood E. , Montaner J.S. , Yip B. Adherence and plasma HIV RNA responses to highly active antiretroviral therapy among HIV-1 infected injection drug users. CMAJ 2003; 169: 656–661.

Vlahov D. , Celentano D.D. Access to highly active antiretroviral therapy for injection drug users: adherence, resistance, and death. Cad Saude Publica 2006; 22: 705–718.

Chander G. , Himelhoch S. , Moore R.D. Substance abuse and psychiatric disorders in HIV-positive patients: epidemiology and impact on antiretroviral therapy. Drugs 2006; 66: 769–789.

Paterson D.L. , Swindells S. , Mohr J. Adherence to protease inhibitor therapy and outcomes in patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133: 21–30.

Wood E. , Hogg R.S. , Yip B. , Harrigan P.R. , O'Shaughnessy M.V. , Montaner J.S. Effect of medication adherence on survival of HIV-infected adults who start highly active antiretroviral therapy when the CD4⁺ cell count is 0.200 to 0.350 x 10(9) cells/l. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139: 810–816.

Palepu A. , Tyndall M. , Yip B. , O'Shaughnessy M.V. , Hogg R.S. , Montaner J.S. Impaired virologic response to highly active antiretroviral therapy associated with ongoing injection drug use. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003; 32: 522–526.

Wood E. , Montaner J.S. Antiretroviral therapy: a key part of the public health response to injection drug use. Addiction 2008; 103: 660–661.

Arnsten J.H. , Demas P.A. , Grant R.W. Impact of active drug use on antiretroviral therapy adherence and viral suppression in HIV-infected drug users. J Gen Intern Med 2002; 17: 377–381.

Roux P. , Carrieri M.P. , Villes V. The impact of methadone or buprenorphine treatment and ongoing injection on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) adherence: evidence from the MANIF2000 cohort study. Addiction 2008; 103: 1828–1836.

Lucas G.M. , Cheever L.W. , Chaisson R.E. , Moore R.D. Detrimental effects of continued illicit drug use on the treatment of HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001; 27: 251–259.

Weber R. , Huber M. , Rickenbach M. Uptake of and virological response to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected former and current injecting drug users and persons in an opiate substitution treatment programme: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. HIV Med 2009; 10: 407–416.

Jordan M.R. , La H. , Nguyen H.D. Correlates of HIV-1 viral suppression in a cohort of HIV-positive drug users receiving antiretroviral therapy in Hanoi, Vietnam. Int J STD AIDS 2009; 20: 418–422.

Palepu A. , Tyndall M.W. , Joy R. Antiretroviral adherence and HIV treatment outcomes among HIV/HCV co-infected injection drug users: the role of methadone maintenance therapy. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006; 84: 188–194.

Wood E. , Hogg R.S. , Kerr T. , Palepu A. , Zhang R. , Montaner J.S. Impact of accessing methadone on the time to initiating HIV treatment among antiretroviral-naive HIV-infected injection drug users. AIDS 2005; 19: 837–839.

Strathdee S.A. , Palepu A. , Cornelisse P.G. Barriers to use of free antiretroviral therapy in injection drug users. JAMA 1998; 280: 547–549.

Low-Beer S. , Yip B. , O'Shaughnessy M.V. , Hogg R.S. , Montaner J.S. Adherence to triple therapy and viral load response. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000; 23: 360–361.

Palepu A. , Yip B. , Miller C. Factors associated with the response to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected patients with and without a history of injection drug use. AIDS 2001; 15: 423–424.

Wood E. , Hogg R.S. , Lima V.D. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and survival in HIV-infected injection drug users. JAMA 2008; 300: 550–554.

Hogg R.S. , Heath K. , Bangsberg D. Intermittent use of triple-combination therapy is predictive of mortality at baseline and after 1 year of follow-up. AIDS 2002; 16: 1051–1058.

Bangsberg D.R. Less than 95% adherence to nonnucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor therapy can lead to viral suppression. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 939–941.

Shuter J. , Sarlo J.A. , Kanmaz T.J. , Rode R.A. , Zingman B.S. HIV-infected patients receiving lopinavir/ritonavir-based antiretroviral therapy achieve high rates of virologic suppression despite adherence rates less than 95%. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007; 45: 4–8.

Wood E. , Montaner J. , Braitstein P. Elevated rates of antiretroviral treatment discontinuation among HIV-infected injection drug users: implications for drug policy and public health. Int J Drug Policy 2004; 15: 133–138.

Liang K. , Zeger S. Longitutinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika 1986; 73: 13–22.

Kerr T. , Marshall A. , Walsh J. Determinants of highly active antiretroviral therapy discontinuation among injection drug users. AIDS Care 2005; 17: 539–549.

Shah N.G. , Celentano D.D. , Vlahov D. Correlates of enrollment in methadone maintenance treatment programs differ by HIV-serostatus. AIDS 2000; 14: 2035–2043.

Rothman J.K. , Greenland S. Modern Epidemiology. New York: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins 1998.

Maldonado G. , Greenland S. Simulation study of confounder-selection strategies. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 138: 923–936.

Lima V.D. , Geller J. , Bangsberg D.R. The effect of adherence on the association between depressive symptoms and mortality among HIV-infected individuals first initiating HAART. AIDS 2007; 21: 1175–1183.

Lima V.D. , Kopec J.A. Quantifying the effect of health status on health care utilization using a preference-based health measure. Soc Sci Med 2005; 60: 515–524.

Kerr T. , Palepu A. , Barness G. Psychosocial determinants of adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy among injection drug users in Vancouver. Antivir Ther 2004; 9: 407–414.

Roux P. , Carrieri M.P. , Cohen J. Retention in opioid substitution treatment: a major predictor of long-term virological success for HIV-infected injection drug users receiving antiretroviral treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49: 1433–1440.

Sambamoorthi U. , Warner L.A. , Crystal S. , Walkup J. Drug abuse, methadone treatment, and health services use among injection drug users with AIDS. Drug Alcohol Depend 2000; 60: 77–89.

Hinkin C.H. , Barclay T.R. , Castellon S.A. Drug use and medication adherence among HIV-1 infected individuals. AIDS Behav 2007; 11: 185–194.

Arnsten J.H. , Demas P.A. , Farzadegan H. Antiretroviral therapy adherence and viral suppression in HIV-infected drug users: comparison of self-report and electronic monitoring. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1417–1423.

Grossberg R. , Zhang Y. , Gross R. A time-to-prescription-refill measure of antiretroviral adherence predicted changes in viral load in HIV. J Clin Epidemiol 2004; 57: 1107–1110.

Gross R. , Bilker W.B. , Wang H. , Chapman J. How long is the window of opportunity between adherence failure and virologic failure on efavirenz-based HAART? HIV Clin Trials 2008; 9: 202–206.

Weiser S.D. , Fernandes K.A. , Brandson E.K. The association between food insecurity and mortality among HIV-infected individuals on HAART. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 52: 342–349.

O'Connor P.G. , Selwyn P.A. , Schottenfeld R.S. Medical care for injection-drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 450–459.

Cofrancesco J. Jr. , Scherzer R. , Tien P.C. Illicit drug use and HIV treatment outcomes in a US cohort. AIDS 2008; 22: 357–365.

Lucas G.M. , Griswold M. , Gebo K.A. , Keruly J. , Chaisson R.E. , Moore R.D. Illicit drug use and HIV-1 disease progression: a longitudinal study in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 163: 412–420.

Tyndall M.W. , McNally M. , Lai C. Directly observed therapy programmes for anti-retroviral treatment amongst injection drug users in Vancouver: access, adherence and outcomes. Int J Drug Policy 2007; 18: 281–287.

Bangsberg D.R. , Hecht F.M. , Clague H. Provider assessment of adherence to HIV antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001; 26: 435–442.

Bangsberg D. , Tulsky J.P. , Hecht F.M. , Moss A.R. Protease inhibitors in the homeless. JAMA 1997; 278: 63–65.

Bangsberg D.R. , Moss A. When should we delay highly active antiretroviral therapy? J Gen Intern Med 1999; 14: 446–448.

Wood E. , Hogg R.S. , Yip B. Rates of antiretroviral resistance among HIV-infected patients with and without a history of injection drug use. AIDS 2005; 19: 1189–1195.

Lert F. , Kazatchkine M.D. Antiretroviral HIV treatment and care for injecting drug users: an evidence-based overview. Int J Drug Policy 2007; 18: 255–261.

Des Jarlais D.C. , Paone D. , Milliken J. Audio-computer interviewing to measure risk behaviour for HIV among injecting drug users: a quasi-randomised trial. Lancet 1999; 353: 1657–1661.