Contemporary literature emphasizes HIV treatment across multiple stages of the care continuum, beginning with HIV testing, followed by linkage and retention in medical care. As a sizeable global population remains undiagnosed or not engaged in medical care, researchers must evaluate the earliest phases of the HIV treatment cascade in order to optimize individual health outcomes and treatment-as-prevention initiatives. Because ambiguity persists for classification of these early stages of HIV care, the aim of this review is to propose a congruous approach to defining the constructs of late diagnosis, delayed presentation and late presentation for HIV medical care, as well as focus attention on methodological considerations and associated clinical and public health implications for these entities.
References
1.
GardnerE.M., McLeesM.P., SteinerJ.F., Del RioC., BurmanW.J.The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis2011; 52: 793–800.
2.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Vital signs: HIV prevention through care and treatment–United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep2011; 60: 1618–1623.
3.
CampsmithM.L., RhodesP.H., HallH.I., GreenT.A.Undiagnosed HIV prevalence among adults and adolescents in the United States at the end of 2006. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr2010; 53: 619–624.
4.
BoulosD., YanP., SchanzerD., RemisR.S., ArchibaldC.P.Estimates of HIV prevalence and incidence in Canada, 2005. Can Commun Dis Rep2006; 32: 165–174.
5.
HamersF.F., PhillipsA.N.Diagnosed and undiagnosed HIV-infected populations in Europe. HIV Med2008; 9Suppl 2: 6–12.
6.
AdlerA., Mounier-JackS., CokerR.J.Late diagnosis of HIV in Europe: definitional and public health challenges. AIDS Care2009; 21: 284–293.
7.
JohnsonM., SabinC., GirardiE.Definition and epidemiology of late presentation in Europe. Antivir Ther2010; 15Suppl 1: 3–8.
8.
DieffenbachC.W., FauciA.S.Universal voluntary testing and treatment for prevention of HIV transmission. JAMA2009; 301: 2380–2382.
9.
CohenM.S., ChenY.Q., McCauleyM.Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med2011; 365: 493–505.
10.
GirardiE., SabinC.A., MonforteA.D.Late diagnosis of HIV infection: epidemiological features, consequences and strategies to encourage earlier testing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr2007; 46Suppl 1: S3–S8.
11.
AntinoriA., CoenenT., CostagiolaD.Late presentation of HIV infection: a consensus definition. HIV Med2011; 12: 61–64.
12.
CavassiniM., ElziL.Late diagnosis of HIV: a trigger to change our practice?European Infectious Diseases2008; 2: 35–38.
13.
KrawczykC.S., FunkhouserE., KilbyJ.M., VermundS.H.Delayed access to HIV diagnosis and care: special concerns for the Southern United States. AIDS Care2006; 18Suppl 1: S35–S44.
14.
GirardiE., AloisiM.S., AriciC.Delayed presentation and late testing for HIV: demographic and behavioral risk factors in a multicenter study in Italy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr2004; 36: 951–959.
15.
NdiayeB., SalleronJ., VincentA.Factors associated with presentation to care with advanced HIV disease in Brussels and Northern France: 1997-2007. BMC Infect Dis2011; 11: 11.
16.
ChadbornT.R., DelpechV.C., SabinC.A., SinkaK., EvansB.G.The late diagnosis and consequent short-term mortality of HIV-infected heterosexuals (England and Wales, 2000–2004). AIDS2006; 20: 2371–2379.
17.
SametJ.H., FreedbergK.A., SteinM.D.Trillion virion delay: time from testing positive for HIV to presentation for primary care. Arch Intern Med1998; 158: 734–740.
SabinC.A., SchwenkA., JohnsonM.A.Late diagnosis in the HAART era: proposed common definitions and associations with mortality. AIDS2010; 24: 723–727.
21.
NakashimaA.K., CampsmithM.L., WolfeM.I., NakamuraG., BegleyE.B.Late versus early testing of HIV–16 sites, United States, 2000–2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep2003; 52: 581–586.
22.
McCoyS.I., JonesB., LeoneP.A.Variability of the date of HIV diagnosis: a comparison of self-report, medical record, and HIV/AIDS surveillance data. Ann Epidemiol2010; 20: 734–742.
23.
HallH.I., LiJ., CampsmithM., SweenyP., LeeL.M.Date of first positive HIV test: reliability of information collected for HIV/AIDS surveillance in the United States. Public Health Rep2005; 120: 89–95.
24.
FairchildA.L., BayerR.HIV surveillance, public health, and clinical medicine–will the walls come tumbling down?N Engl J Med2011; 365: 685–687.
25.
ZetolaN.M., BernsteinK., AhrensK.Using surveillance data to monitor entry into care of newly diagnosed HIV-infected persons: San Francisco, 2006–2007. BMC Public Health2009; 9: 17.
26.
TripathiA., YoumansE., GibsonJ.J., DuffusW.A.The impact of retention in early HIV medical care on viro-immunological parameters and survival: a statewide study. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses2011; 27: 751–758.
27.
GandhiN.R., SkandersonM., GordonK.S., ConcatoJ., JusticeA.C.Delayed presentation for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care among veterans: a problem of access or screening?Med Care2007; 45: 1105–1109.
28.
BurkeyM.D., WilsonL.E., MooreR.D., LucasG.M., FrancisJ., GeboK.A.The incidence of and risk factors for MRSA bacteraemia in an HIV-infected cohort in the HAART era. HIV Med2008; 9: 858–862.
29.
LanoyE., Mary-KrauseM., TattevinP.Frequency, determinants and consequences of delayed access to care for HIV infection in France. Antivir Ther2007; 12: 89–96.
EggerM., MayM., CheneG.Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet2002; 360: 119–129.
32.
Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration.Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet2008; 372: 293–299.
33.
MarksG., CrepazN., SenterfittJ.W., JanssenR.S.Meta-analysis of high-risk sexual behavior in persons aware and unaware they are infected with HIV in the United States: implications for HIV prevention programs. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr2005; 39: 446–453.
34.
QuinnT.C., WawerM.J., SewankamboN.Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med2000; 342: 921–929.
35.
DasM., ChuP.L., SantosG.M.Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco. PLoS ONE2010; 5: e11068.
36.
KrentzH.B., AuldM.C., GillM.J.The high cost of medical care for patients who present late (CD4 <200 cells/microL) with HIV infection. HIV Med2004; 5: 93–98.
37.
FleishmanJ.A., YehiaB.R., MooreR.D., GeboK.A.The economic burden of late entry into medical care for patients with HIV infection. Med Care2010; 48: 1071–1079.
