Why Has Civic Education Failed to Increase Young People's Political Participation?

Abstract

Recent years have seen a revival of civic education. Advocates of this policy have cited the alleged declining normative political participation of young people as a primary reason for its need. This paper builds on the findings of a recent systematic review that examined the effect of civic education on young people's level of normative political engagement. The review found little evidence for civic education having a clear effect on voting/registering to vote, but did identify modest positive effects on forms of political expression (e.g. signing petitions). Hence, it seems civic education has broadly ‘failed’ in its specified aim. We argue here that this ‘failure’ reflects a mechanistic approach to policy and a naive notion that ‘knowledge will result in action’, neglecting insights from sociological literature that shows structural barriers to young people's political participation and the displacement of electoral politics by new hybrid and creative forms of participation.

Keywords

Citizenship Civic Education Political Exclusion Political Participation Young People

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Achterberg

(2006) ‘Class Voting in the New Political Culture: Economic, Cultural and Environmental Voting in 20 Western Countries’, International Sociology 21 (2): p. 237–261. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1177/0268580906061378]

Arnot

(2009) Educating the Gendered Citizen: sociological engagements with national and global agendas, Abingdon: Routledge.

Bachner

(2010) From Classroom to Voting Booth: The Effect of Civic Education on Turn-out. New Orleans, LA: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southern Political Science Association, Hotel InterContinental.

Back

(2002) ‘The Fact of Hybridity: Youth, Ethnicity, and Racism’, in Golding

D. T.

, Solomos

(eds.) A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies, Oxford: Blackwell.

Battiste

and Semaganis

, (2002) ‘First thoughts on First Nations citizenship: issues in education’ In: Hebert

(ed.) Citizenship in transformation in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, p. 93–111.

Beck

(1992) Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, London: Sage.

Beck

and Beck-Gernsheim

(2002) Individualization. London: Sage.

Beresford

and Phillips

H. C. J.

(1997) ‘Spectators in Australian Politics? Young Voters’ Interest in Politics and Political Issues’, Youth Studies Australia, 16 (4): p. 11–16.

Bers

, and Chau

(2010) The Virtual Campus of the Future: Stimulating and Simulating Civic Actions in a Virtual World. Journal of Computing in Higher Education 22 (1): p. 1–23. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1007/s12528-009-9026-3]

10.

Bessant

(2003) Youth participation: A new mode of government? Policy Studies 24 (2-3): p. 87–100. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/0144287032000170984]

11.

Bhavnani

(1991) Talking Politics, London: Cambridge University Press.

12.

Callahan

R. M.

, Muller

and Schiller

K. S.

(2010) Preparing the Next Generation for Electoral Engagement: Social Studies and the School Context, American Journal of Education 116 (4): p. 525–556. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1086/653627]

13.

Carter

and Huby

(2005) ‘Ecological Citizenship and Ethical Investment’, Environmental Politics 14 (2): p. 255–72. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/09644010500055159]

14.

CENTER FOR CIVIC EDUCATION (2005) Voting and Political Participation of We the People: The Citizen and the Constitution Alumni in the 2004 Election, Center for Civic Education. Accessed 28/04/11. Available at: <http://www.civiced.org/research/pdfs/AlumniReport2005.pdf>.

15.

CIVICS EXPERT GROUP, (1994) Whereas the people… Civics and Citizenship Education. Canberra: Australian Government Printing Service.

16.

Clarke

, Barnett

, Cloke

and Malpass

(2007) ‘The Political Rationalities of Fair-Trade Consumption in the United Kingdom’, Politics & Society 35 (4): p. 583–607. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1177/0032329207308178]

17.

Crawford

(2010) Developing Civic Education in the United States: A Case Study of Olathe, Kansas’ Youth Congress Program.” Masters Abstracts International 48 (6): p. 3255.

18.

Dalton

R. J.

(2004) Democratic Challenges, Democratic Choices: The Erosion of Political Support in Advanced Industrial Democracies, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268436.001.0001]

19.

Dalton

R. J.

(2008) The Good Citizen: How a Younger Generation is Reshaping American Politics. Washington: CQ Press.

20.

Berg

R. C.

and Denison

(2012) Interventions to reduce the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting in African countries. Campbell Systematic Reviews DOI:10.4073/csr.2012.9 [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.4073/csr.2012.9]

21.

Bhattacharyya

and Gabriel

(2004) ‘Racial Formations of Youth in Late Twentieth-Century England’, in Roche

and Tucker

(eds.) Youth in Society (2nd ed.), London: Sage p. 61–73.

22.

Dudley

, and Gitelson

(2002) “Politcal Literacy, Civic Education, and Civic Engagement: A Return to Political Socialization?” Applied Developmental Science 6 (4): p. 175–82. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1207/S1532480XADS0604_3]

23.

Edwards

(2009) ‘Disenfranchised Not ‘Deficient’: How the (Neoliberal) State Disenfranchises Young People’ Australian Journal of Social Issues, 44 (1): p. 23–37.

24.

ELECTORAL COMMISSION (2002) Voter Engagement and young People, London: Electoral Commission.

25.

Elias

(1978 [1939]) The civilizing process. New York: Pantheon.

26.

EUYOUPART (2005) Political participation of young people in Europe. SORA <http://www.sora.at/en/topics/political-culture/euyoupart-2003-2005/en-reports.html>[cited 8. 3. 10].

27.

Fahmy

(2003) ‘A Disconnected Generation?: Encouraging Young People's Political Participation in the UK’, Youth and Policy, 81: p. 1–20.

28.

Fraser

(1992) ‘Rethinking the public sphere: a contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy’. In: Calhoun

(ed) Habermas and the Public Sphere. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, p. 109–142.

29.

Furlong

and Cartmel

(2007) Young People and Social Change. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

30.

Furlong

and Cartmel

(2012) Social Change and Political Engagement Among Young People: Generation and the 2009/2010 British Election Survey, Parliamentary Affairs 65 (1): p. 13–28. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1093/pa/gsr045]

31.

Galston

(2007) ‘Civic Knowledge, Civic Education, and Civic Engagement: A Summary of Recent Research.’ International Journal of Public Administration 30 (6-7): p. 623–42. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/01900690701215888]

32.

Gershtenson

, Rainey

G. W.

and Rainey

J. G.

(2010) Creating Better Citizens? Effects of a Model Citizens’ Assembly on Student Political Attitudes and Behavior, Journal of Political Science Education 6 (2): p. 95–116. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/15512161003708129]

33.

Giddens

(1991) Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in Late Modern Age, Cambridge: Polity.

34.

Gitlin

(2012) Occupy Nation: The Roots, the Spirit, and the Promise of Occupy Wall Street, Harper Collins: New York.

35.

Gordon

H. R.

(2008) ‘Gendered Paths to Teenage Political Participation: Parental Power, Civic Mobility and Youth Activism’, Gender & Society 22 (1): p. 31–55. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1177/0891243207311046]

36.

Harris

, (2001) Dodging and weaving: young women countering the stories of youth citizenship. Critical psychology, 4: 183–199.

37.

Harris

(2004) Future girl: young women in the twenty-first century. New York and London: Routledge.

38.

Harris

(2004a). Jamming girl culture: young women and consumer citizenship. In: Harris

, ed. All about the girl: culture, power and identity. New York: Routledge, p. 163–171.

39.

Harris

Wyn

and Younes

(2010) Beyond apathetic or activist youth: ‘Ordinary’ young people and contemporary forms of participation. Young, 18 (1), p. 9–32. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1177/110330880901800103]

40.

Hart

R. A.

(1997) Children's participation: from tokenism to citizenship. Florence, Italy: Innocenti Essays, No. 4, United Nations Children Fund.

41.

Hartley

(1999) The uses of television. London: Routledge.

42.

Hartley

(2010) ‘Silly citizenship’, Critical Discourse Studies 7 (4): p. 233–248. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/17405904.2010.511826]

43.

Henn

and Foard

(2012) Young People, Political Participation and Trust in Britain, Parliamentary Affairs, 65 (1): p. 47–67. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1093/pa/gsr046]

44.

Henn

Weinstein

and Wring

(2002) ‘A Generation Apart? Youth and Political Participation in Britain’, British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 4 (2): p. 167–192. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1111/1467-856X.t01-1-00001]

45.

Holmes

and Manning

(2013) ‘“Them that Runs the Country Don't Know What they're Doing”: Political dissatisfaction amongst members of the white working class, The Sociological Review 61 (3): p. 479–498. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1111/1467-954X.12033]

46.

Inglehart

(1997) Modernizationand Post-Modernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.

47.

JOINT STANDING COMMITTEE ON ELECTORAL MATTERS 2007. Civic and Electoral Education. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.

48.

Joshee

(2004) ‘Citizenship and multicultural education in Canada: from assimilation to social cohesion’ In: Banks

J. A.

, (ed.) Diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. (1st ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 127–156.

49.

Keating

, Kerr

, Benton

, Mundy

and Lopes

(2010) Citizenship education in England 2001-2010: young people's practices and prospects for the future: the eighth and final report from the Citizenship Education Longitudinal Study (CELS). England: Department for Education.

50.

Kimberlee

R. H.

(2002) “Why don't British young people vote at general elections?” Journal of Youth Studies 5 (1): p. 85–98. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/13676260120111788]

51.

Kushin

M. J.

and Yamamoto

(2010) ‘Did Social Media Really Matter? College Students’ Use of Online Media and Political Decision Making in the 2008 Election’, Mass Communication and Society, 13 (5), p. 608–630. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/15205436.2010.516863]

52.

Levac

L. R. E.

(2013) Complicating the public: enabling young women's participation in public initiatives, Journal of Youth Studies, 16 (3): p. 334–357. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/13676261.2012.710742]

53.

Levinson

B. A. U.

(2003) ‘Hopes and challenges for the new civic education in Mexico: toward a democratic citizen without adjectives.’ International journal of educational development, 24 (3), p. 269–282. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2003.11.013]

54.

Lister

(1997) Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives. London: Macmillan.

55.

Llewellyn

K. R.

, Cook

, Westheimer

, Giro'n Molina

L. A.

and Suurtamm

(2007) The state and potential for civic learning in Canada. Research report for charting the course for youth civic and political participation. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Policy Research Networks.

56.

Loader

B. D.

(ed.) (2007) Young Citizens in the Digital Age: Political Engagement, Young People and New Media, London: Routledge.

57.

Manning

and Edwards

(2104) ‘Does civic education for young people increase political participation? A systematic review’, Educational Review, 66 (1) p. 22–45. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/00131911.2013.763767]

58.

Manning

(2013) ‘“I mainly look at things on an issue by issue basis”: Reflexivity and phronêsis in young people's political engagements’, Journal of Youth Studies 16 (1): p. 17–33.

59.

Marsh

, O'Toole

and Jones

(2007) Young people and politics in the UK: apathy or alienation? Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

60.

Martin

(2012) Political Participation among the Young in Australia: Testing Dalton's Good Citizen Thesis, Australian Journal of Political Science 47 (2): p. 211–226.

61.

Mcdevitt

and Kiousis

(2006) Experiments in Political Socialization: Kids Voting USA as a Model for Civic Education Reform. CIRCLE Working Papers 49: p. 1–52

62.

Mcrobbie

(2007) ‘Top girls? Young women and the post-feminist sexual contract. Cultural Studies, 21 (4): p. 718–737. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/09502380701279044]

63.

Mellor

(2003) ‘Solving some Civics and Citizenship Education Conundrums.’ <http://www.civicsandcitizenship.edu.au/cce/default.asp?id=9318>. (accessed 14 August 2013)

64.

Mellor

, and Kennedy

, and Greenwood

(2002) Citizenship and Democracy: Australian Students’ Knowledge and Beliefs. The IEA Civic Educational Study of Fourteen Year Olds, Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.

65.

Milner

(2010) The Internet Generation: Engaged Citizens or Political Dropouts. Medford, MA: Tufts University Press.

66.

Mythen

(2012) ‘Identities in the third space? Solidarity, elasticity and resilience amongst young British Pakistani Muslims’, British Journal of Sociology, 63 (3): p. 393–411 [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2012.01416.x]

67.

O'loughlin

and Gillespie

(2012) ‘Dissenting Citizenship? Young People and Political Participation in the Media-security Nexus’, Parliamentary Affairs 65 (1): p. 115–137. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1093/pa/gsr055]

68.

Park

(2004) ‘Has modern politics disenchanted the young?’ in Park

, Curtis

, and Thompson

(eds) British Social Attitudes, the 21st Report, London: Sage, p. 23–48.

69.

Pasek

, Feldman

, Romer

and Jamieson

K. H.

(2008) Schools as Incubators of Democratic Participation: Building Long-term Political Efficacy with Civic Education. Applied Developmental Science 12 (1): p. 26–37. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/10888690801910526]

70.

Pateman

, (1989) The disorder of women: democracy, feminism, and political theory. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

71.

Pettigre

T. F.

, and Tropp

L. R.

. (2006) ‘A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (5): p. 751–83. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751]

72.

POWER COMMISSION (2006) Power to the People: The Report of Power: An Independent Inquiry into Britain's Democracy, available at <http://www.jrrt.org.uk/publications/power-people-independent-inquiry-britains-democracy-full-report> accessed 29/08/2012.

73.

, Saha

, and Edwards

(2004) Youth electoral study-Report 1: enrolment and voting. [Online, accessed 30/08/2012] URL: <http://www.aec.gov.au/About_AEC/publications/youth_study/index.htm>.

74.

QUALIFICATIONS AND CURRICULUM AUTHORITY (1998) Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools. Final Report of the Advisory Group on Citizenship (Crick Report). London: QCA.

75.

Reichow

, Steiner

A.M.

, Volkmar

(2012) Social skills groups for people aged 6 to 21 with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Campbell Systematic Reviews DOI:10.4073/csr.2012.16 [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.4073/csr.2012.16]

76.

Roche

(1992) Rethinking Citizenship, Cambridge: Policy Press.

77.

Ruget

(2006) ‘The renewal of civic education in France and in America: Comparative perspectives’, The Social Science Journal, 43: p. 19–34. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.soscij.2005.12.002]

78.

Russell

Fieldhouse

Purdham

and Kalra

(2002) Voter Engagement and Young People, London: The Electoral Commission.

79.

Saha

L. J.

(2000) Political Activism and Civic Education among Australian Secondary School Students. Australian Journal of Education, 44 (2): p. 155–174. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1177/000494410004400205]

80.

Saha

and Edwards

(2005) Youth Electoral Study-Report 2: Youth, Political Engagement and Voting, [Online, accessed 30/08/2012] URL: <http://www.aec.gov.au/About_AEC/publications/youth_study/index.htm>.

81.

Schulz

, Ainley

, Fraillon

, Kerr

& Losito

(2010). ICCS 2009 International Report: Civic knowledge, attitudes, and engagement among lower secondary school students in 38 countries. Amsterdam: IEA.

82.

Seidman

(2008) Contested knowledge: social theory today (4th edition), Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

83.

Smith

and Barrientos

(2005) ‘Fair Trade and Ethical Trade: Are There Moves Towards Convergence?’ Sustainable Development 13 (3): p. 190–98. [doi://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1002/sd.277]

84.

Sörbom

and Wennerhag

(2013) ‘Individualization, Life Politics, and the Reformulation of Social Critique: An Analysis of the Global Justice Movement, Critical Sociology, 39 (3): p. 453–478.

85.

Stolle

, Hooghe

, Micheletti

(2005) ‘Politics in the Supermarket: Political Consumerism as a Form of Political Participation’, International political Science Review, 26 (3): p. 245–269.

86.

Theocharis

(2012) ‘Cuts, Tweets, Solidarity and Mobilisation: How the Internet Shaped the Student Occupations’, Parliamentary Affairs, 65 (1): p. 162–194.

87.

Ttofi

M. M.

, and Farrington

D. P.

(2011) ‘Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: a systematic and meta-analytic review.’ Journal of Experimental Criminology 7 (1): p. 27–56.

88.

Vanderbeck

R. M.

(2007) ‘Intergenerational Geographies: Age Relations, Segregation and Re-engagements.’ Geography Compass 1 (2): p. 200–221.

89.

Van Zoonen

, Vis

and Mihelj

(2010) ‘Performing citizenship on YouTube: activism, satire and online debate around the anti-Islam video Fatina.’ Critical Discourse Studies 7 (4): p. 249–262.

90.

Vromen

(2003) ‘Traversing Time and Gender: Australian Young People's Participation’, Journal of Youth Studies 6 (3): p. 277–294.

91.

Vromen

and Collin

Philippa

(2010) Everyday youth participation? Contrasting views from Australian policymakers and young people. Young, 18 (1): p. 87–112.

92.

Wagner

(1994) A Sociology of Modernity: Liberty and Discipline, London: Routledge.

93.

Wattenberg

(2011) Is voting for Young People? (3rd ed.) New York: Pearson Longman.

94.

Webb

, Farrell

and Holiday

2002 Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

95.

White

, Bruce

, and Ritchie

(2000) Young People's Politics: Political Interest and Engagement Amongst 14-24 Year Olds, Layerthorpe: York Publishing Services Ltd.

96.

Wilkinson

and Mulgan

(1995) Freedom's Children: Work, relationships and politics for 18-34 year olds in Britain today, London: Demos.

97.

Wyness

, Harrison

and Buchanan

(2004) ‘Childhood, Politics and Ambiguity: Towards an Agenda for Children's Political Inclusion’, Sociology, 38 (1): p. 81–99.

98.

Young

(2003) ‘From guilt to solidaity’, Dissent, 50 (2): p. 39–45.

99.

YOUTH CITIZENSHIP COMMISSION (YCC) (2009) Old Enough to Make a Mark? Should the Voting Age be Lowered to 16 Making the Connection? Building Youth Citizenship in the UK. London: YCC.

100.

Zief

S. G.

, Lauver

Maynard

R. A.

(2006) Impacts of after-school programs on student outcomes. Campbell Systematic Reviews DOI:10.4073/csr.2006.3