Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) is currently a well-established, minimally invasive treatment for many primary and secondary tumors, especially deep-sited lesions for which traditional neurosurgical procedures were poorly satisfactory or not effective at all. The initial evolution of SRS was cautious, relying on more than 30 years of experimental and clinical work that preceded its introduction into the worldwide medical community. This path enabled a brilliant present, and the continuous pace of technological advancement holds promise for a brighter future. Part II of this review article will cover the impact of multimodal adjuvant technologies on SRS, and their input to the crucial role played by neurosurgeons, radiation oncologists and medical physicists in the management and care of fragile neuro-oncological patients.
GanauM., ForoniR.I., GerosaM., ZivelonghiE., LonghiM., NicolatoA.Radiosurgical options in neuro-oncology: a review on current tenets and future opportunities – Part I: therapeutic strategies. Tumori.2014; 100: 459–65.
2.
GanauM., BoscoA., PalmaA.. A DNA-based nano-immunoassay for the label-free detection of glial fibrillary acidic protein in multicell lysates. Nanomedicine.2014.
3.
PediciniP., FiorentinoA., SimeonV.. Clinical radiobiology of glioblastoma multiforme: estimation of tumor control probability from various radiotherapy fractionation schemes. Strahlenther Onkol.2014; 190(10): 925–932.
4.
TalacchiA., TurazziS., LocatelliF.. Surgical treatment of high-grade gliomas in motor areas. The impact of different supportive technologies: a 171-patient series. J Neurooncol.2010; 100(3): 417–426.
5.
CalabreseC., PoppletonH., KocakM.. A perivascular niche for brain tumor stem cells. Cancer Cell.2007; 11(1): 69–82.
6.
TamuraK., AoyagiM., AndoN.. Expansion of CD133-positive glioma cells in recurrent de novo glioblastomas after radiotherapy and chemotherapy. J Neurosurg.2013; 119(5): 1145–1155.
7.
BrownP.D., BrownC.A., PollockB.E., GormanD.A., FooteR.L.Stereotactic radiosurgery for patients with “radioresistant” brain metastases. Neurosurgery.2008; 62(Suppl 2): 790–801.
8.
CeresoliG.L.Role of EGFR inhibitors in the treatment of central nervous system metastases from non-small cell lung cancer. Curr Cancer Drug Targets.2012; 12(3): 237–246.
9.
SongZ., ZhangY.Gefitinib and erlotinib for non-small cell lung cancer patients who fail to respond to radiotherapy for brain metastases. J Clin Neurosci.2014; 21(4): 591–595.
10.
Jamal-HanjaniM., SpicerJ.Epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors in the treatment of epidermal growth factor receptor-mutant non-small cell lung cancer metastatic to the brain. Clin Cancer Res.2012; 18(4): 938–944.
11.
HeS., PhamM.H., PeaseM.. A review of epigenetic and gene expression alterations associated with intracranial meningiomas. Neurosurg Focus.2013; 35(6): E5.
12.
PreusserM., BerghoffA.S., HottingerA.F.High-grade meningiomas: new avenues for drug treatment?Curr Opin Neurol.2013; 26(6): 708–715.
13.
HorakP., WöhrerA., HasslerM., HainfellnerJ., PreusserM., MarosiC.Imatinib mesylate treatment of recurrent meningiomas in preselected patients: a retrospective analysis. J Neurooncol.2012; 109(2): 323–330.
14.
McCutcheonI.E.Stereotactic radiosurgery for malignant extracerebral intracranial tumors: patient selection, efficacy, and technical nuances. Acta Neurochir Suppl.2013; 116: 71–83.
15.
PrabhakarpandianB., GoetzD.J., SwerlickR.A., ChenX., KianiM.F.Expression and functional significance of adhesion molecules on cultured endothelial cells in response to ionizing radiation. Microcirculation.2001; 8(5): 355–364.
16.
GaberM.W., SabekO.M., FukatsuK., WilcoxH.G., KianiM.F., MerchantT.E.Differences in ICAM-1 and TNF-alpha expression between large single fraction and fractionated irradiation in mouse brain. Int J Radiat Biol.2003; 79(5): 359–366.
HongJ.H., ChiangC.S., CampbellI.L., SunJ.R., WithersH.R., McBrideW.H.Induction of acute phase gene expression by brain irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.1995; 33(3): 619–626.
19.
ChiangC.S., SyljuäsenR.G., HongJ.H., WallisA., DoughertyG.J., McBrideW.H.Effects of IL-3 gene expression on tumor response to irradiation in vitro and in vivo.Cancer Res.1997; 57(18): 3899–3903.
20.
DaigleJ.L., HongJ.H., ChiangC.S., McBrideW.H.The role of tumor necrosis factor signaling pathways in the response of murine brain to irradiation. Cancer Res.2001; 61(24): 8859–8865.
21.
TsaiC.S., ChenF.H., WangC.C.. Macrophages from irradiated tumors express higher levels of iNOS, arginase-I and COX-2, and promote tumor growth. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.2007; 68(2): 499–507.
22.
WangS.C., YuC.F., HongJ.H., TsaiC.S., ChiangC.S.Radiation therapy-induced tumor invasiveness is associated with SDF-1-regulated macrophage mobilization and vasculogenesis. PLoS ONE.2013; 8(8): e69182.
23.
AnzaloneN., EssigM., LeeS.K.. Optimizing contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging characterization of brain metastases: relevance to stereotactic radiosurgery. Neurosurgery.2013; 72(5): 691–701.
24.
EllisM.J., RutkaJ.T., KulkarniA.V., DirksP.B., WidjajaE.Corticospinal tract mapping in children with ruptured arteriovenous malformations using functionally guided diffusion-tensor imaging. J Neurosurg Pediatr.2012; 9(5): 505–510.
25.
ContiA., PontorieroA., SalamoneI.. Protecting venous structures during radiosurgery for parasagittal meningiomas. Neurosurg Focus.2009; 27(5): E11.
26.
GanauM., SyrmosN., LigarottiG.K., GanauL., PriscoL.Postoperative granulomas versus tumor recurrence: PET and SPET scans as strategic adjuvant tools to conventional neuroradiology. Hell J Nucl Med.2012; 15(3): 184–187.
27.
MatsunagaS., ShutoT., TakaseH.. Semiquantitative analysis using thallium-201 SPECT for differential diagnosis between tumor recurrence and radiation necrosis after gamma knife surgery for malignant brain tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.2013; 85(1): 47–52.
28.
MiwaK., MatsuoM., ShinodaJ.. Clinical value of [11C]methionine PET for stereotactic radiation therapy with intensity modulated radiation therapy to metastatic brain tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.2012; 84(5): 1139–1144.
29.
TripathiM., SharmaR., VarshneyR.. Comparison of F-18 FDG and C-11 methionine PET/CT for the evaluation of recurrent primary brain tumors. Clin Nucl Med.2012; 37(2): 158–163.
30.
SboarinaA., ForoniR.I., MinicozziA.. Software for hepatic vessel classification: feasibility study for virtual surgery. Int J CARS.2010; 5(1): 39–48.
31.
OhB.C., LiuC.Y., WangM.Y., PagniniP.G., YuC., ApuzzoM.L.Stereo-tactic radiosurgery: adjacent tissue injury and response after high-dose single fraction radiation. Part II: Strategies for therapeutic enhancement, brain injury mitigation, and brain injury repair. Neurosurgery.2007; 60(5): 799–814.
32.
GanauM.Tackling gliomas with nanoformulated antineoplastic drugs: suitability of hyaluronic acid nanoparticles. Clin Transl Oncol.2014; 16(2): 220–223.
33.
ChangJ.E., KhuntiaD., RobinsH.I., MehtaM.P.Radiotherapy and radiosensitizers in the treatment of glioblastoma multiforme. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol.2007; 5(11): 894–902, 907-915.
34.
LearyS.P., LiuC.Y., ApuzzoM.L.Toward the emergence of nanoneurosurgery: part III—nanomedicine: targeted nanotherapy, nanosurgery, and progress toward the realization of nanoneurosurgery. Neurosurgery.2006; 58(6): 1009–1026.
35.
TomblynM.B., KatinM.J., WallnerP.E.The new golden era for radioimmunotherapy: not just for lymphomas anymore. Cancer Control.2013; 20(1): 60–71.
36.
PradosM.D., SeiferheldW., SandlerH.M.. Phase III randomized study of radiotherapy plus procarbazine, lomustine, and vincristine with or without BUdR for treatment of anaplastic astrocytoma: final report of RTOG 9404. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.2004; 58(4): 1147–1152.
37.
SuhJ.H., SteaB., NabidA.. Phase III study of efaproxiral as an adjunct to whole-brain radiation therapy for brain metastases. J Clin Oncol.2006; 24(1): 106–114.
38.
KondziolkaD., SomazaS., FlickingerJ.C., ClaassenD., LunsfordL.D.Cerebral radioprotective effects of high-dose pentobarbital evaluated in an animal radiosurgery model. Neurol Res.1994; 16(6): 456–459.
39.
VallboC., BergenheimT., HedmanH., HenrikssonR.The antimicrotubule drug estramustine but not irradiation induces apoptosis in malignant glioma involving AKT and caspase pathways. J Neurooncol.2002; 56(2): 143–148.
40.
StewartD.J., DahrougeS., AgboolaO., GirardA.Cranial radiation and concomitant cisplatin and mitomycin-C plus resistance modulators for malignant gliomas. J Neurooncol.1997; 32(2): 161–168.
41.
GuelmanL.R., Zorrilla ZubileteM.A., RíosH., DopicoA.M., ZieherL.M.GM1 ganglioside treatment protects against long-term neurotoxic effects of neonatal X-irradiation on cerebellar cortex cytoarchitecture and motor function. Brain Res.2000; 858(2): 303–311.
42.
StewartD.J., EapenL., GirardA., VermaS., GenestP., EvansW.K.Phase II study of lonidamine plus radiotherapy in the treatment of brain metastases. J Neurooncol.1993; 15(1): 19–22.
43.
KomarnickyL.T., PhillipsT.L., MartzK., AsbellS., IsaacsonS., UrtasunR.A randomized phase III protocol for the evaluation of misonidazole combined with radiation in the treatment of patients with brain metastases (RTOG-7916). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.1991; 20(1): 53–58.
44.
KondziolkaD., MoriY., MartinezA.J., McLaughlinM.R., FlickingerJ.C., LunsfordL.D.Beneficial effects of the radioprotectant 21-aminosteroid U-74389G in a radiosurgery rat malignant glioma model. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.1999; 44(1): 179–184.
45.
McHaffieD.R., ChabotP., DagnaultA.. Safety and feasibility of motexafin gadolinium administration with whole brain radiation therapy and stereotactic radiosurgery boost in the treatment of ≤6 brain metastases: a multi-institutional phase II trial. J Neurooncol.2011; 105(2): 301–308.
46.
DeibertC.P., AhluwaliaM.S., SheehanJ.P.. Bevacizumab for refractory adverse radiation effects after stereotactic radiosurgery. J Neurooncol.2013; 115(2): 217–223.
47.
Torres-ReveronJ., TomasiewiczH.C., ShettyA., AmankulorN.M., ChiangV.L.Stereotactic laser induced thermotherapy (LITT): a novel treatment for brain lesions regrowing after radiosurgery. J Neurooncol.2013; 113(3): 495–503.
48.
FabianoA.J., AlbericoR.A.Laser-interstitial thermal therapy for refractory cerebral edema from post-radiosurgery metastasis. World Neurosurg, 2014; 81(3-4): 652.e1–e4.
49.
GerosaM., GanauM., NicolatoA.Stereotactic radiosurgery to date: potentials and limits. In: LavanoA., LandiA., LanotteM., eds. Handbook of stereotactic and functional neurosurgery.Torino: Minerva Medica, 2011; 303–313.
