Assessment for Effective Intervention

The inclusion of students with disabilities in large-scale assessments, typically by using testing accommodations, for statewide accountability systems became a legal reality with the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1997, and the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002. These legal mandates and best assessment practices are imperatives for special educators to develop a greater understanding of key issues surrounding testing accommodations to facilitate the meaningful participation of all students in assessments. This article briefly describes the legal and educational context of testing accommodations, current issues in testing accommodations, and the rationale for this special issue. It then introduces readers to the special series in Assessment for Effective Intervention on Testing Accommodations: Research to Guide Practice.

This article advocates the use of a decision-making flowchart to help understand whether the proposed test alteration(s) is an accommodation or a modification. If the proposed alteration is not listed in state guidelines, the flowchart directs the IEP team to identify (a) the purpose of the test and (b) the consequences of the scores so that the team is specifying the parameters of any validity arguments. Next, the IEP team must decide whether the proposed setting, presentation, or response alteration (a) changes the measured construct(s), (b) is based upon need versus benefit, (c) produces differential outcomes for various groups or individuals, and (d) generates different judgments. Finally, utilizing empirical outcomes the team decides whether the proposed alteration more closely resembles an accommodation or a modification. Research reviews regarding setting, presentation, and response alterations are also presented that may provide IEP teams with some empirical guidance.

Testing accommodations used in students' IEPs or recommended by classroom teachers were investigated. Three domains of testing accommodations were examined; (a) accommodations recommended through the IEP process, (b) accommodations recommended by the teacher, and (c) accommodations provided in the testing sessions, to explore factors that potentially influence the implementation of recommended testing accommodations. The Assessment Accommodations Checklist (AAC) was used as a means of translating the IEP process from diverse school districts into a common framework. A three-category system developed by CTB/McGraw-Hill was used to characterize potential threats to validity posed by each of the recommended and provided accommodations. Accommodations that were frequently recommended and used (i.e., provide extra testing time, read directions to students, provide distraction free space, etc.) are discussed with regard to the CTB/McGraw-Hill categories, and aspects of future research are outlined.

This study examined the effects of testing accommodations on the mathematics and reading test scores of a sample of 119 fourth graders and 78 eighth graders. The sample included 49 fourth-grade students diagnosed with a disability and 39 eighth-grade students diagnosed with a disability. The study used a 2 (Disability Status) x 2 (Testing Condition) ¥ 2 (Grade) ¥ 2 (Test Content Area) ¥ 2 (Order) mixed design. All students were tested under two conditions (i.e., accommodated or nonaccommodated) on equivalent forms of research editions of mathematics and reading tests from an achievement test used in many statewide assessment systems. Testing conditions were randomized to control for potential order effects. Results indicate that fourth-grade students with disabilities (SWD) benefited from testing accommodations more than students without disabilities (SWOD); this differential benefit was greater on the reading tests (effect size for SWD = .42, effect size for SWOD = .13) than on the mathematics tests (effect size for SWD = .46, effect size for SWOD = .27). Furthermore, a higher percentage of SWDs improved at least one proficiency level than SWODs. Both SWDs and SWODs in eighth grade gained slight benefits from the testing accommodations. More eighth-grade SWDs improved at least one proficiency level on the reading tests, but more SWODs improved at least one proficiency level on the math tests. The article discusses implications of these findings, limitations of the study, and directions for future research.

This study examined student, parent, and teacher perceptions of the use of testing accommodations and the relationship between student perceptions of testing accommodations and their disability status and grade level. Students with and without disabilities completed math and reading achievement tests with and without accommodations. Students, parents, and teachers completed a questionnaire to share their views on the use of testing accommodations. Significant differences were found in the proportions of students with and without disabilities who reported that the accommodated test condition was easier, more comfortable, and a better indicator of their knowledge. Most parents and teachers perceived testing accommodations to be fair and valid for students with disabilities. Consequential aspects of testing are an important part of validity evidence for large-scale assessment systems. The perceived positive consequences of testing accommodations provide further evidence of their continued use and their role in facilitating valid test scores.

Despite policy mandates to include students with disabilities in educational assessment and accountability programs, current practices suggest a substantial lack of capacity for effective inclusion. Continuing professional development (CPD) is an essential component of disseminating and implementing effective inclusion practices. Recent reviews of CPD for teachers suggest traditional CPD methods are largely inef fective in changing practices. In this article, we identify features of CPD likely to lead to changes in teachers' practices and discuss how these features interact with the unique content and challenges related to inclusion to identify promising CPD practices. Evidence evaluating one CPD effort, Assessing One & All, is presented to document the effectiveness of such CPD practices and to illustrate the benefits and barriers to effective CPD for inclusion in large-scale assessments. These findings provide a foundation for discussing how research can guide CPD efforts to enhance inclusion of students with disabilities in educational assessment and accountability programs.

Alternate assessments are intended for use with students who are unable to participate in general state and district assessment systems even with accommodations, and have been described as the "ultimate accommodation" for promoting the inclusion of students with significant disabilities in accountability systems. This article examines four challenges to be addressed in designing and implementing alternate assessments for students with disabilities: (a) deciding who should participate in alternate assessments, (b) deciding what skills and knowledge should be assessed, (c) creating reliable and valid assessments, and (d) defining proficient performance on alternate assessments.

This article discusses the research reported in this special issue with respect to implications for policy, practice, and future research. The discussion focuses on the functions of research in reporting, enlightenment and conceptualization, short-run empiricism, and testing for replication. The article concludes by calling for systematic and sustained research on assessment accommodations.