Acta Sociologica

The paper takes up two basic concepts in a structural theory of social exchange: the structuring of exchange systems and unequal exchange. The latter is conceptualized in terms of structural consequences of ex change activity. The two concepts are used to analyze the role of exchange activity in the production and reproduction of social structure and cor responding exchange systems.

The intentional structuring of exchange systems is the focus of the second part (Structuring exchange systems) with two examples from inter national political economy: the structuring of England/Portugal trade re lations in the seventeenth century and the formation of Bretton Woods economic institutions. The third part (Social structure and unequal ex change) examines the reciprocal relationship between social structure and unequal exchange processes. A general model is formulated and applied to exchange systems at different societal levels: husband/wife exchange. capitalist employer/labor exchange, and exchange between enterprises of developed and those of less developed countries. The fourth part (Ques tions for the future) refers to two matters for future research: the trans formation of unequal exchange systems and the role of social context in structuring the logic of social action and meaning in exchange activity.

This paper is based on the view that since social science is concerned with the generation of codified knowledge of the social world its impact should be seen as principally upon other sets of ideas. It suggests that social policy may thus be conceptualized as an evolving sequence of concepts, theories and problems comparable with the cognitive development of science. At any time a variety of such 'paradigms' will be in competition. Embodiment of these 'paradigms' in practical programmes constitutes a process of 'testing' through the medium of feedback/intelligence processes. Dem onstrated discordance between programmes and problems evinces responses understandable on the basis of an analogy with science. Under certain conditions major insights may be sought from outside. Thus the opportunities for social science vis-à-vis policy depend fundamentally on the extent of policy-makers' dissatisfaction with current 'paradigms'.

Popular support for Nordic cooperation is seen as a precondition for the Nordic orientation in Danish foreign policy. A survey of mass attitudes shows that while Nordism is very widespread and strong, it tends to be especially strong in societal groups which for social, psychological or political reasons are less likely to be politically influential. The policy implications of this finding are discussed.

This paper critically examines Gustavsen's argument that the extent of interlocking in company directorships is dependent on the level of organization in the corporate environment. Gustavsen's analysis of Nor way and Sweden is compared with time-series data for Scotland from 1906 to 1973. The trend in the figures seems to contradict Gustavsen's argu ment, since the overall level of interlocking has decreased whilst the complexity of the environment has increased. It is argued, however, that interlocking is not the only index of corporate interconnection and that a full analysis must also take account of trends in company mergers and acquisitions.