Cross-Cultural Research

This article argues that there exists not one universal morality of caring contrasting with the morality of justice but, rather, alternative types of interpersonal moralities that reflect the meaning systems emphasized in different cultural groups. Both the superogatory view of interpersonal morality held by Lawrence Kohlberg and the morality-of-caring framework developed by Carol Gilligan are shown to be culturally bound. Research conducted among American and Hindu Indian populations supports the claim that an individually oriented interpersonal moral code develops among Americans, stressingpersonal freedom of choice, individual responsibility, and a dualistic view of individual motivation. In contrast, a duty-based interpersonal moral code develops among Hindu Indians, stressing broad and socially enforceable interpersonal obligations, the importance of contextual sensitivity, and a monistic view of individual motivation. Issues for future research are iden tified, and implications of these alternative interpersonal moral codes for other domains of interpersonal functioning are suggested.

This article is a selective review of recent psychological research on the moral development of Japanese children and adolescents from a cultural point of view. The author begins with a short introduction to the characteristics of Japanese society suggested by social scientists. Based on the findings of current educational surveys, the problems of children and adolescents are discussed. Studies that use cognitive developmental approaches in researching moral development in Japan are also reviewed. Some of the findings support the characteristics of Japanese morality in the framework of this approach, but several studies suggest exceptions. The exceptions de rive from Japanese beliefs concerning nature, the social world, and the nature of the universe. Suggestions are made for future research.

The state of being moral and the process of becoming moral was examined in a sample of 211 Chinese students from Taiwan who were divided into seven age groups. "Structured wholeness" was demonstrated by cross-sectional data that showed that moral mean ings associated with the self are organized coherently across different situations; this finding describes the state of being moral. With respect to the process of becoming moral, the longitudinal data suggested an invariant sequence of moral reasoning stages, with little retrogression or skipping of stages by most subjects. Social class but not gender had a positive although modest effect on rate of development. A comparison of the Chinese data with previous American and Israeli data points to basic cross-cultural similari ties in terms of sequence of stages and rate of development.