Journal of European Social Policy

This comparative study deals with the question of whether elderly women in the twelve member states of the EC receive minimum pensions of their own. Since the realization of Beveridge's two principles of universality and of a guaranteed minimum should imply mini mum pensions for elderly women, we have examined if the core old-age security systems of the twelve member states actually are oriented to these principles.

Starting in 1990, a series of legislative measures have been re-shaping the Italian wel fare state, as judged by the aims behind the reforms of the 1970s, which had defined social rights in the field of social and health services. At the same time, these changes have been redefining the roles, rights and duties of the different actors involved: not only citizens, but also state, local government, service workers, trade unions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and families. Behind these changes lie financial constraints and increasing social dis satisfaction with the unfilfilled promises of the 1970s. However, the main legitimizing force has been the requirements of the Maastricht Treaty, in terms of national budget deficits. Rather than being a mere 'retrenchment' of the state, this process may be interpreted as an attempt to change the balance within the Ita lian welfare mix. As a consequence of these changes, both universalist social rights and particularist vested interests are being affected in complicated and interrelated ways.

National output has fallen drastically in Russia in the past three years, and there is evidence that employment has also fallen substantially. Yet officially unemployment has only risen to a little over 1 per cent. This paper argues that in reality unemployment is very substantially higher. It draws in part on a survey of job- seekers registering at employment exchanges in eighteen districts, and in part on an advisory report prepared for the Russian Federal Employment Service. Essentially, it considers the various institutional and behavioural fac tors that explain the unemployed's low pro pensity to register at employment exchanges.