Human Systems Management

Organizations acquire information concerning environmental changes through their scanning operations. Different types of environments are expected to call forth different scanning activities. This paper presents the analysis of an empirical investigation of the scanning process. The analysis is based on proposed relationships between different environmental states (dynamic and stable) and scanning behaviors (surveillance and search) of the executives. Analytical considerations are also given to hierarchical levels of executives (upper and lower) and to the functional specialities of the managers (marketing, technology, government, etc.).

This study is unique in that it is one of the first to focus on scanning behavior in Japanese industries. Its value lies in its concern for a vital corporate need—the need of organizations to know where and how they acquire information.

A new form of uncertainty called possibilistic uncertainty is introduced. As opposed to probabilistic uncertainty, which is based upon an additive measure and is applicable in cases of repeated experiments, possibilistic uncertainty is based upon a non-additive measure and is a generalization of the idea of ease of attainment in a situation. We discuss the properties of possibilistic uncertainty and describe some prototypical examples. We also discuss the idea of language as being a generator of possibilistic variables. We introduce fuzzy subsets as a means of translating linguistic values into possibility distributions and the idea of approximate reasoning as a means of simulating a large class of human reasoning operations. We introduce a measure of specificity of a possibility distribution and discuss applications of fuzzy set theory to intelligent quering of data bases and multiple criteria decision making. Finally, we introduce some ideas from fuzzy arithmetic.

Using elements from the human information processing frameworks proposed by Kochen, and Simon and Newell, environmental complexity and individual differences were examined in a laboratory experiment where individuals were required to abstract specific information as well as to perceive complex relationships among the information over time. Environmental complexity was induced by modifying the report formats and increasing the amount of information provided to decision makers. Individual differences were measured by the Group Embedded Figures Test and the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator. The results of the study were that (1) the subjects indicated a strong preference for the information representation they used initially even after having seen and understood or used an alternative representation, (2) after an increase in information or an increase in information and a change in representation an initial deterioration in performance resulted, (3) the popular notion that graphics are catagorically superior to tables is not supported either by the literature or this study, and (4) individual differences did not account for performance differences.

It is important for researchers to know not only their own field of study, but to understand something of the nature of scientific theory and how scientists go about their work. Such an understanding is especially important for those who are interested in interdisciplinary fields, like the study of Human Systems, where the scientific status of theory may be unclear, and where the distinction between science and pseudo-science may not be readily apparent. This article will examine the philosophical work of Nagel, Popper, and Kuhn in a discussion of three questions: What is scientific theory? What is the difference between good science and pseudoscience? How do scientists go about their work? The nature and development of Formal Decision/Utility Theory are examined in order to provide a model for discussing these questions.

Planning and design (P&D) involves the creation or restructuring of a situation-specific solution or system to achieve a purpose or desired results. Over thirty five P&D professions can be identified, yet everyone also engages in P&D. Three objectives measure the success of P&D: maximize the effectiveness of recommended solutions, maximize the likelihood of implemented solutions, and maximize the effectiveness of P&D resources. Several predicaments in P&D professions can be identified as a result of evaluating P&D performance in terms of these objectives. Various approaches to achieving P&D purposes are reviewed to identify points at which improvements can be made. Five intertwined factors along a timeline are identified to demonstrate a different and more effective approach: pursuing a P&D strategy, specifying and presenting a solution, involving people, using information and knowledge, and arranging for continuing change.

Several barriers impede the formation and execution of long-range strategies for marketing and producing products, processes and services to meet the needs of potential customers. A key barrier to adoption of an innovation, for example, is lack of support by top management. Hypotheses about the potential of computer information systems for overcoming these barriers are proposed for testing. The main new tool proposed as an addition to the decision support repertoire is a guide to help business planners choose wisely among all the options that exist.

High technology can be viewed as the application of science for human benefit. It encompasses electronics, genetics, optics, metallurgy, and many other aspects of science. High technology product development takes place along the three dimensions of product, market, and technology. Successful introduction of high technology requires integration among all three dimensions.

The impact of automation in LDCs is discussed, with emphasis on specificities related to their phase of development. It is claimed that social counterpressures that have, in developed countries, softened the impact of automation, are absent in LDCs. The location of decision centers outside these countries is considered a major difficulty. Therefore, the pace of automation in LDCs must be regulated by their governments, in order to cushion effects on strategic dependence, unemployment, and others. Some degree of domestic development of technology is viewed as a necessary step in this direction.