The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science

Factors beyond the control of researchers often limit the sizes of samples included in their studies. When these factors limit the total sample size, the statistical power of tests of contrasts of means may be unacceptably low. Sometimes these factors limit the size of only one sample (called the Fixed N Sample), whose mean is to be contrasted with the mean of one other sample or with the average of the means of (g-1) other samples. In such situations, the upper bound for the statistical power of the contrast test may be much below the minimum power values conventionally considered acceptable, even though the total sample size could, in theory, be indefinitely large. Such unacceptably low powers occur not only for Cohen's (1988) small effect sizes but also for medium and large effect sizes when the fixed Ns are of magnitudes no smaller than the sample sizes often reported in psychological research.

A study sought to identify the role expectations ascribed to pregnancy, and to examine whether such expectations differed across categories of socioeconomic status, age, race, and gender. In particular, the adequacy of Parsons `s model of the sick role for describing social expectations for pregnant women was analyzed. For each of the four components of Parsons `s sick role, items were developed for a questionnaire administered to a sample of 329 adults in a metropolitan community. The results indicate that for the vast majority of the respondents, the behavior expected of pregnant women is similar to Parsons's sick role. A factor analysis of item responses, however, reveals that they are not unidimensional. Furthermore, significant variation occurred across categories of socioeconomic status, gender, race, and age in the extent to which respondents ascribed the four implications of these findings are discussed.

A study examined ritual conformity and loose coupling in the responses of community mental health organizations in North Carolina to legal policy encouraging the outpatient commitment of the mentally ill. Data from field notes on patient outcomes, interviews with organization participants, and case study materials indicate that organizations requiring legitimacy in an institutional environment (versus a technical environment) exhibit ritual conformity and are loosely coupled. Loose coupling, however, is difficult to distinguish conceptually and empirically from the professionalization of work roles. Professional organizations are loosely linked (i.e., buffered from the formal structure of the organization) because control over work activities is weak. The existence of professionals rationalizes and legitimates loose coupling, a way to conform with environmental (institutional) demands, and to resolve conflict between professional and bureaucratic elements. Further research is needed to distinguish empirically between loose coupling and professionalization, and to further refine the institutional model of organizational activity in bureaucratic, professional, and heteronomous organizations.

Understanding the differences in perceptions among organization leaders of the strategic decision-making process and who participates in it can help leaders manage potential conflict. Although differences in perception occur because of differences in roles and group membership, these differences in perception may be exacerbated by the content of the decision itself and by the generic strategy of the organization. In a study of hospital strategic decision making, findings show that the decision makers' roles, the content of the strategic decision, and, in some cases, the generic strategy of the organization affect differences in perception of the extent to which physicians participate in strategic decision making. Findings also show that decision makers may agree about who participates, but not about how physicians participate. Implications for managers are discussed.

This article proposes that one way to help a group liberate itself from dysfunctional conflict and defensive routine is through the introduction of generative metaphor. By intervening at a tacit, indirect level of awareness, group members are able to generate fresh perceptions of one another, thereby allowing for the revitalization of the social bond and a heightened collective will to act. After exploring insights into the recent literature on social cognition and selective perception, a case is presented in which generative metaphor was successfully used to help a dysfunctional group build (1) liberated aspirations and the development of hope, (2) decreased interpersonal conflict, (3) strategic consensus around a positive vision for the future, (4) renewed collective will to act, and (5) egalitarian language reflecting a new sense of unity and mutuality in the joint creation of the group's future. Stages of the generative metaphor intervention are discussed, and propositions are developed concerning those factors that will likely enhance the generative potential of metaphor as an agent for group development and organizational change.

Most models of large-scale change assume that only outside experts working closely with senior management can initiate and implement change successfully. Using the Polish Solidarity Trade Union case, a model is presented that explains how system insiders-who may or may not have formal status have the potential to initiate and implement transformational change. The following two facets of the model are emphasized: legitimizing, whereby new beliefs, ideas and theories are legitimated; and reconstructive learning, whereby underlying beliefs and assumptions are explored and reformulated into new practices and ideologies. The article also addresses the relationship of legitimizing and reconstructive learning to implementing, the process whereby new practices, systems, and structures are set in place for the purpose of achieving desired objectives. Research propositions and implications for practitioners are presented.

William M. Fox interviews Eric Trist, eminent scholar and social scientist, who was a founder and chairman of the Tavistock Institute in London. Trist recounts the foundation of the institute as an outpatient clinic and its evolution into a leading center of action research and applied behavioral science. He discusses his work in the British coal mining industry, from which he developed the concept of the sociotechnical system. Descriptions of his work and experiences with the British Army during World War II and of the various projects he undertook with multinational firms and smaller companies illustrate the resistance, suspicion, and other obstacles that he and his colleagues often encountered while working to implement new systems. Finally, Trist describes his sociotechnical systems work in the ailing industrial town of Jamestown, New York, and on the Ten recommendations.