Journal of Research in Music Education

Twelve hundred fifty-six subjects, ranging in age from 3 to 78 years, were asked to listen to three music excerpts and indicate the color they associated with each. The purpose of this procedure was to provide data that might shed light on the origin and development of the association of color with music. Results strongly support the existence of musical color associations in that the subjects' responses were extremely consistent across generations and music examples after approximately age 9. However, an understanding of the origin of musical color associations still seems elusive. The researchers suggest that the association of color with music may not be the result of experiential conditioning or early chromesthetic experiences as has been theorized. Instead, color associations may be a kind of sensory processing of music that appears to be widespread and consistent across a broad age spectrum.

One hundred years ago, public school vocal music was taught primarily by regular classroom teachers and not by music specialists. What was the quality of the preparation of these teachers and the extent of their music teaching? What can today's music educators learn from a time when music could have been called a “basic” in the classroom? This study reviewed educational philosophies of the period from 1885 to 1905, teacher preparation at normal institutes, certification examinations in vocal music, techniques of classroom teacher supervision by music specialists, and methods of teaching vocal music. Four contemporary national surveys regarding the status of public school music were also examined. The study found that teachers trained at normal schools received between ten and fifty hours of music instruction, primarily in music theory. Supervision of grade teachers (instuctors of the period who were primarily responsible for grades one through eight) by music supervisors produced some striking successes and some failures. The study's findings suggest that music educators pursue joint efforts between music specialists and classroom teachers.

General John Eaton, commissioner of the United States Bureau of Education from 1870 to 1886, undertook a survey of public school music programs in American city schools in 1885 and published it in 1886, Eaton undertook the survey in response to what he believed to be a great urgency on the part of music teachers to ascertain the state of public school music. The survey instrument asked questions concerning how many hours per week, in what grades, and by whom music was taught. A description of the systems and textbooks used to teach music reading was solicited. Eaton also was interested in knowing of any objections being urged against introducing music into the schools. A total of 343 school districts, encompassing a public school enrollment of 1,209,677 students, responded to the survey. Of those districts, 96 reported no instruction in music, 132 reported that instruction was given by the regular teaching force, 19 reported special teachers for music, and 96 reported employing both regular and special teachers for music instruction. In districts where music was not taught, reasons such as lack of money, public indifference, lack of skill on the part of the teachers, and lack of time were given. The survey concluded with a lengthy list of lay singing societies. The survey, frequently mentioned in convention addresses between 1886 and 1889, was used as evidence that music in the public schools was far from being accepted as part of a basic curriculum. The document provided a rallying point for persons committed to music instruction for every child.

This study examined the effects of aural and visual approaches to rhythm reading and short-term retention. Second- and sixth-grade students were presented with two-measure rhythm patterns in four modes: (1) audio-rhythm, (2) audio-mnemonics, (3) (audio) visual-rhythm, and (4) (audio) visual-mnemonics. Raw data consisted of the number of trials necessary for the correct performance of the rhythms on a woodblock. Results indicated that the simultaneous use of auditory and visual channels facilitates learning and retention of rhythms at both grade levels. Maturation is significant in the acquisition of rhythms, in that older students learned the patterns twice as quickly as the younger children, regardless of presentation mode. Factors concerning the mnemonics, short-term memory, and the development of music literacy were discussed.