Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness

The foundational concepts of early intervention are: family-centered and relationship-based practices, natural environments, child learning, adult learning, and quality team practices (Pletcher & Younggren, 2013). In this literature review, the authors consider the application of these concepts to services provided to families of infants and toddlers with visual impairments (that is, those with blindness or low vision) by vision professionals.

Three databases (ERIC, ProQuest, and PsychINFO) were used to search for articles from 1997 to 2016, focusing specifically on infants and toddlers with visual impairments. Twenty-seven articles met the criteria for inclusion in the review.

Family-centered practices are valued by virtually all researchers in the field of visual impairment. Practices that promote parent-child relationships are especially important, given the specialized needs for early communication and the development of strong social relationships. Concerning the natural environment, commentators from the field of visual impairment are critical of federal definitions of natural environments; however, a broader definition of natural environments is supported. Child and adult learning are viewed as important for the promotion of positive outcomes for children and families who receive early intervention services, as is practice that promotes the formation of quality teams.

The foundational concepts of early intervention (Pletcher & Younggren, 2013) have applicability to professionals working with infants and toddlers with visual impairments and their families. Research supports these concepts as beneficial in achieving positive child and family outcomes.

Pre-service and in-service training programs for visual impairment should include early intervention principles and concepts in a manner that prepares the workforce to address the unique needs of this population.

Although there is much research related to the adoption of children with disabilities in general, there is none that focuses specifically on the experiences of parents who have adopted children with visual impairments (that is, who are blind or have low vision) from outside of the United States (also called “intercountry” or “international” adoption).

Fifteen parents of children who were adopted from outside the United States and had visual impairments were interviewed in this exploratory study. The participants all lived in the United States following the adoptions and volunteered to participate in this study in 2015. Research questions focusing on pre-adoption (why and who), challenges, and supports framed the open-ended interviews. The interviews were transcribed and themes emerged through the process of coding.

Parents shared their personal experiences through interviews. All 15 parents had similarities in the process of adoption. Parents adopted in order to begin or enlarge their families, but did not necessarily go into the process desiring to adopt a child with a visual impairment. Challenges were experienced in the areas of medical, educational, and social-emotional needs. Parents agreed that supports were necessary before, during, and after the adoption process.

The need for supports throughout the entire process of inter-country adoption of a child with a visual impairment was made clear through this study. Adoption agencies and agencies for visually impaired individuals are in a good position to set up support networks and mentorship programs.

This study only scratches the surface of the topic of intercountry adoption of children with visual impairments. By sharing experiences, attention can be given to issues, and systems can be put into place to better support families in raising internationally adopted children with visual impairments.

Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) typically affects children's overall functioning in visually cluttered environments. This study aims to consider whether the removal of classroom clutter ameliorates visual problems and the associated behavioral difficulties for these children.

Two classrooms at a special school were de-cluttered. Changes included: covering glass panels with thick black paper; hanging sheets over open shelving; creating areas of blank wall in front of the student to focus attention on work; removing unnecessary equipment and furniture; and taking down information on windows and walls, and that hanging from ceilings. Teachers, paraeducators, and students worked in these classrooms for two weeks, following typical daily routines. Observations by teachers and paraeducators of students’ behavior and learning experiences before and after de-cluttering were sought through interviews.

The perspectives of the teachers and paraeducators were that de-cluttering had a positive effect on the students’ learning experiences and behavior and also on their own functioning. They also considered the fact that creation of learning spaces lined with black paper resulted in greater attention and focus, but that students continued to be distracted by the noise and movement of others.

The potential link between cluttered classrooms and students’ functioning and behavior indicates that visual clutter may amplify the visual difficulties associated with CVI and distract the students from learning activities, and is in line with current literature. Changes to classroom layouts that include specific areas for different learning activities, including “black hubs,” may therefore benefit students with CVI.

This pilot study suggests that the elimination of classroom clutter and the creation of black hub learning spaces enhances functioning and merits further investigation. A study that compares specific behaviors and performances, before and after implementation of de-cluttering strategies, might also determine whether the positive effects described by the teachers can be further corroborated.

This study compares the experiences of high school students with visual impairments (that is, those who are blind or have low vision) in and out of school.

Twelve visually impaired high school students completed the same in-the-moment survey seven times daily for seven consecutive days. The frequencies of their activities, interactions, and ratings of internal variables (fitting in, acceptance, loneliness, and enjoyment) were compared across three contexts: home, school, and other (neither home nor school) contexts.

Participants spent much of their time out of school alone at home. They rated leisure and structured recreation in “other” locations as their most enjoyable activities. Doing nothing at school was the least positively rated activity. Participants fitted in significantly less and felt significantly less accepted at school than elsewhere. A large proportion of school interactions involved receiving help; few involved giving help. Participants with additional disabilities reported more school social challenges than their peers who were only visually impaired.

This study highlights the subjective dimensions of choice in everyday life. The social impact of doing nothing at school provides an imperative for staff members to ensure that adolescents with visual impairments can participate in lessons. Staff may also need to facilitate opportunities for these students to reciprocate with peers. Adolescents with visual impairments highly value activities with friends out of home and, as with most adolescents, may need to lean on their families for assistance in this area until they can participate in such activities independently.

Mentors can help college graduates with visual impairments (that is, those with blindness or low vision) prepare for and seek employment in their chosen fields by serving as role models and sharing their experiences with mentees. Identifying mentoring activities and discussions most valued by mentees with visual impairments will facilitate the design of future mentoring programs.

A nationwide mentoring program for college students with legal blindness was implemented using an experimental longitudinal research design. Career mentors with legal blindness worked with mentees to develop knowledge and skills related to securing employment. Data included engagement in job-seeking activities, most helpful aspects of the mentoring relationship, and a participant evaluation of the program.

Most mentees indicated that program activities and discussions related to visual impairment (for instance, disclosure and accommodation planning) and field-specific issues (such as career exploration and professional development) were of greatest value. Participants evaluated the program positively.

Mentees valued knowledge, support, encouragement, and career guidance provided by mentors. Mentors valued the opportunity to contribute to the growth of young professionals with visual impairments.

Students with visual impairments find value in specific aspects of mentoring relationships, and mentors are eager to work with students seeking employment. Topics and activities for future mentoring programs should include disclosure, accommodations, blindness skills, and job-search skills. Level of visual impairment and the career field should both be considered when pairing mentors with students with visual impairments preparing for employment.

Difficulties in science and mathematics may stem from intuitive interference of irrelevant salient variables in a task. It has been suggested that such intuitive interference is based on immediate perceptual differences that are often visual. Studies performed with sighted participants have indicated that in the comparison-of-“perimeters” task, “area” was the irrelevant salient variable. Such studies have consistently shown that accuracy is higher and reaction times for correct responses are shorter in congruent trials (no interference of area), than in incongruent trials (interference of area).

Fifteen participants who are blind completed a comparison-of-area and a comparison-of-perimeters tasks, each in a different session. In each comparison trial, the participants explored two tactile geometrical shapes using both hands. To collect the participants’ responses and reaction times, the researchers used a Microsoft Excel Macro file designed for this study.

Findings demonstrated that for both rate of correct responses and their reaction times, the performance pattern resembled the one observed previously for sighted participants. In addition, reaction times that were observed there were about five times longer compared to those observed previously for sighted participants.

These findings indicated that interference of area in comparison to perimeters is evident for participants who are blind. They further suggest that, in mathematics, people who are blind experience interference that had previously been assumed to be tied to visual perception.

The study suggests that interference of salient irrelevant variables could cause difficulties in science and mathematics for students who are blind. This knowledge could guide educators and curriculum developers for these students in selecting appropriate learning and instruction methods. In addition, the current findings point to the additional amount of time needed to access graphical information tactilely compared to visually.