Musicae Scientiae

For many music students, the transition to university-level studies can be a time characterized by high levels of stress as they adjust to academic standards and the challenges of demanding performance assessments. Given this context, this study investigated the impact of stress on students’ well-being, specifically the facet of subjective vitality, defined in the literature as a feeling of energy and aliveness. Our focus was to explore whether certain psychosocial traits would moderate the negative effects of stress on vitality. Working from an empirically derived conceptual model, our central hypotheses were: (a) that stress and self-oriented perfectionism would be negatively related to vitality, whereas adaptability and quality of peer relationships would be positively related to vitality; and (b) that the relationship between stress and vitality would be moderated by students’ self-oriented perfectionism, adaptability, and quality of peer relationships. Participants were 293 undergraduate and graduate music majors from university schools of music and conservatoires in the United States and Australia. Findings revealed that stress was a significant negative predictor of vitality, but self-oriented perfectionism was not. In addition, both adaptability and quality of peer relationships were significant positive predictors of vitality. However, neither self-oriented perfectionism, adaptability, nor quality of peer relationships moderated the effects of stress on vitality. These findings are discussed with regard to practical recommendations for helping students deal with the stressors in their environments and potential theoretical avenues to explore through future research.

The purpose of this study was to examine differential item functioning (DIF) in a rubric used to assess middle-school solo and ensemble performances. This study was guided by the following research questions: (a) does measurement equivalence for all items exist when used to measure subgroups of students based on their musical instrument? (b) what patterns of differential item functioning effects exist for items when used to measure subgroups of students based on their musical instrument? and (c) what size of differential item functioning effects exists for items when used to measure subgroups of students based on their musical instrument? In total, 17 adjudicators evaluated 138 middle-school instrumental students (ages 11–13) in the context of a live, formal solo and ensemble performance assessment. Using the Many Facets Rasch Partial Credit measurement model, measurement equivalence for all items did not exist when used to measure subgroups of students based on their musical instrument ( χ ² ₍₂₅₂₎ = 634.00, p < .01). Of the 252 total pairwise interactions examined between items and instruments, 57 (22.62%) significant interaction terms were identified. Overall, 26 (10.3%) significant interaction terms demonstrated a moderate to large effect (|DIF| >/= .63 logits), nine (3.6%) significant interaction terms demonstrated a slight to moderate effect (|DIF| = (.43, .63 logits)), and 22 (8.7%) significant interaction terms demonstrated a negligible effect (|DIF| < .43 logits). Implications for the fairness of music performance assessments and improved assessment protocols are discussed.

Prior research suggests that underdogs elicit from others an increased affiliation (e.g., liking, identification) as well as an increased desire for success (e.g., support). In the present study, we examined whether or not people similarly endorsed underdog, relative to topdog, musicians. In Study 1, we found that underdog (relative to topdog) musicians received greater affiliation, in the form of higher interpersonal evaluations, and support, in the form of greater desire for career success. Moreover, this support weakened when statistically accounting for interpersonal support. Study 2 replicated Study 1 but additionally asked participants to listen to a sample of music ostensibly produced by the musician described prior to answering questions about the musician. Findings suggest that although underdog status did not bolster liking of the music sample itself, people nonetheless expressed greater affiliation and support for the musician. These findings emphasize the critical role of identity presentation in listeners’ evaluations of musicians, particularly when that musician communicates underdog status. We discuss the implications of underdog status on a musician’s identity as well as future research directions exploring the ways underdog status may be established and maintained. We additionally discuss the role of the aspects of music, such as the musician’s genre or platform, in communicating this underdog status.

Concerns have been raised that persistent exposure to violent media can lead to negative outcomes such as reduced empathy for the plight of others. The present study investigated whether fans of aggressive heavy or death metal music show reduced empathic reactions to aggression, relative to fans of non-aggressive music. 108 participants who self-identified as fans of heavy or death metal, classical or jazz music (n=36 per group) were presented with vignettes that described a primary character’s reaction (the ‘aggressor’) in response to a secondary character’s irritating action (the ‘instigator’). The aggressor’s reaction was either non-aggressive, mildly aggressive or strongly aggressive. After each vignette, participants provided ratings of state empathic concern (other-oriented empathy) and personal distress (self-oriented distress). They also completed measures of trait empathy, passion for music and its psychosocial functions. Fans of heavy or death metal exhibited lower trait empathic concern compared with classical and jazz fans. However, only male heavy or death metal fans exhibited lower state empathic concern than male classical and jazz fans. Finally, social bonding was a stronger motivation for heavy or death metal fans to listen to music than for classical fans. Results are discussed in light of research and public concern regarding the effects of long-term exposure to media violence.

Increasing the duration of an intervening key has a negative effect on memory for the original, nonadjacent key. Evidence suggests the recollection of a key only remains for 20 seconds after modulation to a new key section. But factors other than time might influence the perception of nonadjacent key relationships. By using a probe-cadence paradigm, this study tested whether time or the number of musical events (chords) determined the deterioration in memory of the global effect of nonadjacent keys. Stimuli were constructed in three parts: (a) a major key was established through a standard chord progression; (b) an intervening section, either 6 or 9 seconds in duration and formed from either four or six chords, was introduced in 12 possible keys; and (c) a short pause was followed by the probe cadence in the original key—that is, the key at (a). Fifty-one participants were asked to estimate the amount of harmonic closure they perceived at the probe cadence. Results confirmed previous findings of significant negative effects of time on the residual influence of the nonadjacent key. However, there were no significant effects of number of events. This provides evidence that it is the length of time, not the number of musical events in an intervening modulation that determines the recollection of the original key.

This study presents the Chinese adaptation of the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI), an instrument for measuring individual differences in musical ability and skilled musical behaviour. Its psychometric properties were examined with a Taiwanese sample. The Gold-MSI inventory was translated into Chinese following recommendations from the literature on cross-cultural test development. Subsequently, the psychometric properties of the Chinese Gold-MSI self-report inventory, including the Melody Memory Task and the Beat Alignment Perception Task, were evaluated using an online survey with 1,065 participants. Results of confirmatory factor analysis suggest that the original factor structure of the Gold-MSI inventory showed an acceptable fit with the data from the Chinese-speaking sample. In addition, the Chinese Gold-MSI inventory shows good reliability. The Melody Memory Task and the Beat Alignment Perception Task also have sufficient test-retest reliability. Finally, correlations between the Chinese Gold-MSI inventory and the Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence subscale of the Eight Multiple Intelligences Questionnaire as well as the two additional music tests provide evidence for convergent and divergent validity. Overall, the data suggest that the Chinese Gold-MSI has good psychometric properties. Percentile norms for the Gold-MSI inventory and the music tests from the present sample are reported for use in future studies. The present study thus makes a valuable contribution to cross-cultural research in music psychology by enabling the comparison between Chinese and Western studies of individual differences in musical ability.

People differ from each other, and this includes performers of music. The study of individual differences is well established in many social science disciplines but has been largely neglected in music performance research. To what extent do performers play differently from each other? How can these differences be concisely described and precisely assessed? Questions like these remain unanswered. Focusing on tempo and tempo variation in performance, this article contributes to knowledge by describing a well-defined, clearly illustrated and systematically classified taxonomy for identifying differences in tempo and tempo variation. Based on findings from past theoretical and empirical research on tempo in performance, it presents a model whereby performers’ individual differences in tempo and tempo variation can be evaluated. The model identifies six variables representing three dimensions of tempo and tempo variation: basic tempo, global tempo variation, and local tempo variation. It has the potential for providing researchers with a toolbox for analyzing differences among individual performers’ use of tempo and tempo variation by assessing the extent to which each of the variables is embodied in specific performances. Evgeny Kissin’s and Lars Vogt’s recorded performances are used to illustrate how the model will perform its role. Researchers could test the model further by analyzing a larger repertoire and/or carrying out experiments to generate more comprehensive knowledge about individual differences in performance style.