Journal of Psychology and Theology

The incarnation of Christ is considered as a metaphor for the role of the psychotherapist. The tendency of children to attempt to purge parental badness by taking it upon themselves, as noted by object relations theorists, is considered as a reflection of the imago Dei. Ways in which a similar process may occur in psychotherapy are then considered. It is concluded that the incarnational element of psychotherapy may be one of the basic curative factors present in any successful therapy.

Self-esteem can be formally defined in ways that require radically different ethical assessments. An examination of the phenomena usually associated with high self-esteem, however, allows an ethical assessment which is not dependent on formal definitions. The phenomena to which most people intend to refer when they use the term high self-esteem can be assessed ethically by recognizing its similarity to humility and by making reference to virtues such as empathy, contentment, honesty, courage, and grace.

The model of learned helplessness is reviewed and related to New Testament Pauline writings. It is suggested that Paul did experience the perception of helplessness, yet did not experience the deficits which often accompany helplessness. The lack of such deficits can be explained, in terms of a reformulated model of learned helplessness, by considering the self-attributional statements exhibited in Paul's writings. Despite Paul's realistic appraisal of his helplessness, his self-worth was not threatened –- he was complete although inadequate. It is suggested that an overemphasis on the doctrine of inadequacy may lead to self-esteem deficits among evangelicals.

Individual religious development is conceptualized as the manifestation of underlying psychosocial processes. Ritualizations (i.e., modes of social interaction) and ritualisms (i.e., the obsessive-compulsive uses of rituals) emanating from personality development and socialization have religious correlates. This article examines ritualizations and ritualisms occurring within religious development. Special attention is given to the developmental and etiological factors in religious ritualisms or religious pathologies. The classical theological example of the seven deadly sins is analyzed within a psychosocial perspective.

Research findings suggest that (a) “religious” clients are less likely to benefit from counseling (more dropouts, less beneficial change) than “nonreligious” clients and (b) successful counseling usually results in value changes by clients. It was hypothesized that both of these findings might be due to secular and religious counselors setting different goals for potentially religious clients. In this study, counselors in explicitly Christian or secular settings, on professional or student levels (n = 96), completed questionnaires rating their goals for a fictitious client who denied the importantce of religion, ignored it, acknowledged it responsibly, or acknowledged it but acted bizzarely. The work setting accurately predicted the values of the counselors. Counselors, regardless of setting, responded differentially to clients who perceived the importance of religion differently. Christian counselors were significantly more concerned with spiritual issues and viewed spiritual goals as more important than did secular counselors. Findings suggest that, although both secular and Christian counselors are sensitive to perceptions of individual clients, the value system of the counselors will likely be reflected in the treatment goals they prefer.

Recent attempts to measure the quality of life or subjective well-being show promise for a more helpful and accurate appraisal of the collective and individual state of people than objective, economically-oriented indicators have allowed. Unfortunately, the quality of life movement has virtually ignored the religious dimension of life and the part that such beliefs and practices play in well-being. In response to this void, Paloutzian and Ellison (1982) have developed a Spiritual Well-Being Scale which measures both religious and existential well-being. This article reports on the conceptualization of the spiritual well-being dimension, development of the scale, research which has utilized the scale, and suggests directions for future research.

Parents are faced with a rather perplexing array of approaches to authority and discipline in the family. These approaches range from permissive perspectives, which emphasize freedom and warmth, to authoritarian perspectives, which emphasize control and compliance. Many parents search for a biblical approach to authority and discipline in the family. This article presents such an approach, both in terms of theological-theoretical perspectives and research addressing these perspectives. A biblical approach emphasizing dominion and service working hand-in-hand yields a more authoritative perspective. Research has demonstrated this perspective as beneficial to the child in the development of instrumental competence, self-esteem, responsibility, and moral maturity.

An argument is presented for interpreting “praying without ceasing” (I Thessalonians 5:17) and “understanding and knowing God” (Jeremiah 9:24) in terms of both rational behavior and nonrational experience. There are many people in the evangelical subculture, however, who would interpret such verses only in the rational sense. The subcultural influence of this rationalistic content bias, of always interpreting Scripture in rational categories, as well as the method bias of viewing the interpretation process itself as entirely rational –- collectively referred to as the evangelical culture of rationalism –- is critiqued. It is noted that scriptural interpretation is by nature a human activity, comprised of thoughts and feelings and guided by the Holy Spirit, but not perfectly all of the time. It is concluded that the basic assumptions of the evangelical culture of rationalism, methodological purity and epistemological certainty, lead to the polarization of rational versus nonrational, which is not an accurate account of the hermeneutic process.