Social Change

Our popular Hindi filmic genres are influenced by the Gram Narratives of Indian culture-namely, the two great epics-th Ramayana and the Mahabharata and also, to some extent, our foil traditions, mythologies, Parsi theatre, and the Vedas. Th contemporary intermingling of cultures in the era of globalisatioi has however laid the foundation for a new interpretation of the socia situation. It is in this framework that this paper tries to deconstruc the erstwhile orientations towards gender, sexuality, modernity, am so on, all associated with the portrayal of the female character ii Indian moving images. It is argued that the current global scenarii is such that no culture can claim to be entirely original. A bricolag of ideas have created a postmodern situation that has been reflecte in our tastes, preferences, outlooks, languages, essential concept like truth, race, gender, God, life, and death-and most importantly in our moving images.

Data from the 1999-2000 Bangladesh Demographic & Health Survey show that of the married female adolescents exposed to the risk of pregnancy and not using any family planning method, more than one-fourth had an unmet need for contraception. The demand for contraception at a young age, if catered to, can not only significantly reduce fertility and diminish the reproductive health burdens of mothers over their life span, it can also contribute to child health. Husband's approval, and desire for a large family were among the factors found to impede contraceptive use. Appropriate IEC strategies are needed to promote the value of the small family and dispel the religious misinterpretation of birth control, so as to enhance the adolescent's negotiating strength for asserting her reproductive rights. There is a need also to take cognisance of the considerable demand for spacing, which is believed to be neglected by the family planning programme. Another salient issue is that of the limited mobility of women outside the home which, in a traditional country like Bangladesh, makes it difficult for them to get planning information on their own initiative. Hence the need for a policy reorientation in favour of home-based services

Secondary sources are tapped to show how dams, mining, deforestation, construction of roads, railways, etc. in the State of Orissa have unleashed unintended consequences for the deprived sections, particularly the displaced and victimised tribals in the western inland regions who, without proper rehabilitation, have not only been completely alienated from their original habitat and culture but have also been estranged from their traditional sources of sustainable livelihood in the forest economy. If ‘development’ is to be seen in a proper perspective, there is need for the policy makers to reorient themselves and take cognisance of the unintended negative consequences of their development projects, in terms of ecological sustainability, socio-cultural relevance, as well as local needs and demands, long before those projects are initiated.

The green revolution brought prosperity to Haryana, but much of the increase in disposable income, instead of being ploughed back into infrastructure development, was frittered away in alcohol consumption, leading to major domestic problems all over the State, with wife beating and alcoholism, according to one study, seen to be inseparable. An anti alcohol movement, spearheaded by women, took root in this fertile soil, and spread. Though the political establishment sought to gain mileage by imposing prohibition, a mafia emerged to fill the void, and the consumption of liquor and related problems did not disappear. The women who spearheaded the anti liquor movement did not however raise their voices in protest, due to a number of reasons. When men usurped the frontal roles, they were inhibited by purdah and social mores, they lacked the resources to sustain the movement, they were adversely affected when the State turned enforcer and their menfolk were sent to jail, they were stymied when patriarchy reasserted itself via links with the mafia, which the women were not able to withstand, and there was no social support for the agitators, who came to be blamed for the fall in government revenues. Yet the anti liquor movement helped women organise themselves, and brought their voices into the political limelight.

Among the Naai, a backward (OBC) community of Uttar Pradesh, the status of women is still very low, according to this study of the Naai of Tharauli village of Siddharthnagar, a district on the northeastern border of Uttar Pradesh. These women suffer from restrictions on mobility and are denied participation in decision-making, and the domestic violence inflicted on them has social acceptance. The evil of child marriage is also prevalent in this community. The majority of these women are ignorant about their rights, and social resistance also prevents them from getting their legitimate share. The women of this community confine themselves to the boundaries of the family and are not allowed to evolve and have access to the modern world

Child labourers are denied their rights to education, an adequate standard of living, and opportunities for developing their personality, talents, and mental and physical abilities. They are deprived of leisure and play, of survival and development, and do not have protection from abuse and neglect. Children are future assets of any society, and their arrested growth affects the country as a whole, in the long run. Societies with large number of working children will be producing more and more illiterate citizens, who are devoid of the skills needed for development.

Primary data collected from selected bastís of Jalandhar showed that 9.6% of the total labour engaged in the stitching of inflatable balls was child labour. The working hours for these children was far in excess of the statutory limit as provided under the Child Labour Prohibition and Regulation Act, 1986. Moreover, as the work of ball stitching is outsourced by contractors and done in the household, children engaged in this activity are not covered by the health and safety benefits that factory workers are entitled to.

The children work to augment family income. Also, one of the factors at the root of child labour in Jalandhar is the perception that the education imparted in schools does not make one fit for jobs, so the sooner the children learn job-related skills, the better it is for them. Vocational education, if provided, would facilitate both education and skill training. Another measure could be to bring household labour under the scope of the law, so that children can not be put to work

Do we prefer freedom backed up by minimum government or would we be merely satisfied with sobriety that is imposed on our lives and liberty by the dictates of high politics from above? It is amply clear that at the beginning of a new millennium already imperiled by the grim possinility of a nuclear war that civilised human beings organised as systems of politics across porous international borders can no longer afford to unquestioningly follow the policy prescriptions of their domestic governments, foreign offices and State departments. More intense people-to-people contacts should be sustained on a long-term basis. As such transnational networks can better work toward the so-called Track two diplomacy between intellectuals and academics, social activists, policy analysts, development consultants and the common people. It is the unknown citizen who should really be brought back into primary focus by Rolling Back the State-'nowhere men and women’ should have basic empowerment, freedom and development. Yet another fundamental war should be waged against hunger, poverty and illiteracy-based on endurable peace, better quality of education for all and a higher quality of material and ethical well-being in general.

NGOs have a crucial role to play in facilitating people's movements and grassroots organisations, to ensure that governance is accountable and that people actively participate in decision-making processes. Only if they can articulate their demands and organise for collective action will the poor and excluded have a voice; hence NGOs need to be geared to mobilisation and collective assertion of rights and demands by poor and marginalised groups and communities. The NGO sector, along with people's organisations and movements need to influence State policies for allocation of adequate resources to human development priorities, people friendly markets and pro poor growth.

Panchayats in Andhra Pradesh are not only obstructed by a lack of power and resources, the Secretariat system introduced by the State government has been perceived to erode the power of elected representatives in favour of Secretaries who have been appointed to each grampanchayat to look after its day to day affairs. Caste domination and marginalisation of women representatives are other problems afflicting panchayati raj in the State. Moreover, panchayats in A.P. are stymied by parallel structures that have obstructed their functioning, which suggests a need for organic links between the activities of panchayats, committees and the like, through a mobilisation process along the lines advocated by some NGOs. To that end, a VHS (Village Development Sangham) should be set up at the local level, comprising of members of panchayats, village level committees, self help groups, and politically conscious people, with the mandate of prioritising works based on the feelings and aspirations of the people, to be executed by the panchayats. Empowerment of theorem sabha, people's participation and capacity building for elected representatives are some of the other emerging concerns.

Our study shows that membership of a dairy cooperative helped women to become economically independent and self-confident, with improved prestige in the community. Formal social participation and group actions increased and hence the overall empowerment of cooperative members was more. Women's participation should be ensured in cooperatives, training institutions, credit institutions, agricultural labour institutions etc, so that they can be able to organise themselves, identify their needs, build a positive image, and be aware of their rights and responsibilities.

Women play a key role in the socio-economic development of a country. Yet, they are discriminated against in almost every walk of life, right from the very earliest stages. Female foeticide and infanticide are a denial of the right to life itself, females are discriminated against in the spheres of health and nutrition (which makes them more susceptible to mortality and contributes to unbalanced male-female ratios), as well as in the spheres of education, employment and wages, and that of political representation. Society's attitudes towards women is shown also by the violence perpetuated against them, both by their husbands and outside the home. Still, there are signs of hope, in the form of steps and measures to improve the situation of women, and more generally, in the rising levels of consciousness of women's concerns.

The women of Dharavi, in many cases, are engaged in the dual roles of homemaker and breadwinner in the informal sector. In the work place, they have to contend with mental and physical stress, long hours of work, and harassment of middlemen and supervisors. On the domestic front, they manage meagre resources to feed a large family, and have to submit to both beatings from their husbands as well as torture from their in-laws, who resort to it as a way of venting frustrations. In spite of their adverse circumstances, the women perform their dual role with utmost sincerity and integrity.

The government agency Jan Shikshan Sansthan has sought to help Dharavi's women contribute to family income through better types of income generating activities and also, to imbue them with self-respect and good moral and social values. As a consequence, there has been an overall sea change in the beneficiaries, both in their inner and outer lives. However, a government agency like the Jan Shikshan Sansthan has more of a role to play in making the slum women self reliant and empowering them with the capacity for rational thinking and prudent decision making.