The Counseling Psychologist

This article presents a theory of male identity developed to address the question of why men vary in their masculinity ideology and in their conformity to standards of masculinity. The theory, male reference group identity dependence, is based on two other theories—reference group theory and ego identity development theory. Reference group identity dependence is defined as the extent to which males are dependent on a reference group for their gender role self-concept. An overview of relevant masculinity research, theoretical foundations for the construct of reference group identity dependence, theoretical postulates, and associated behavioral and psychological characteristics are presented. Research implications of the theory are discussed and future research directions are provided.

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure of male identity based on Wade's (1998) theory of male reference group identity dependence. The construct was operationalized in the form of a self-report instrument, the Reference Group Identity Dependence Scale (RGIDS), that assesses feelings of psychological relatedness to other males. A total of 344 undergraduate males from a large state university completed the RGIDS. Construct validity was evaluated by relating the RGIDS to measures of ego identity, gender role conflict, social anxiety, self-esteem, and anxiety and depression symptomatology. Results of the factor analysis indicated that a four-factor structure corresponded to three hypothesized levels of the construct. The four subscales of the RGIDS demonstrated sound internal consistency, and correlations found between the RGIDS and the other measures in the study indicated preliminary support for validity of the construct. The findings are discussed in terms of implications for the theory and future research on men and masculinity.

This study highlights the use of a semistructured interview to explore essential positive and negative qualities of current and historic significant relationships. This approach allows for identifying who (or what) comprises each respondent's significant social network and for conducting a qualitative analysis of those positive and negative qualities that affect participant's lives. Using a self-psychology perspective, it was hypothesized that four bipolar qualities-availability, reliability, empathy, and non-intrusiveness-would emerge, with clinical individuals emphasizing the negative pole and nonclinical individuals emphasizing the positive. Both clinical and nonclinical individuals identified friends and family, with clinical individuals incorporating therapists, mentors, and organized groups into their significant social influences. As expected, empathy, reliability, and availability emerged, and clinical individuals had overall fewer positive themes and greater negative themes, including lack of reciprocity and feeling devalued by others. Future research must begin understanding the determinants of perceptual and relational response styles and the ways in which formal and informal sup-port influences the life adaptation process.