The Counseling Psychologist

The criminal justice population has experienced exponential growth in recent decades. Yet, counseling and vocational psychology has not kept pace in addressing the vocational needs of this population. A recent literature search in counseling and vocational journals found that in the last quarter century, only 14 articles have been published that focus on this topic. Among these, even fewer are focused on developing effective vocational interventions for this population. The articles in this major contribution endeavor to begin filling this gap by (a) demonstrating the need and applicability for applying counseling and vocational psychology in developing vocational interventions for the criminal justice population, (b) providing an example and initial empirical findings of a vocational intervention used with this population, and (c) informing readers of best practices in interdisciplinary research for theoretical integration to work with this population.

The purpose of this study was to adapt and experimentally test the effectiveness of a research-based, employment-focused group counseling intervention (OPTIONS). OPTIONS was designed to increase male inmates’ exploration and identification of employment interests and options, identification and development of employment-search skills, and knowledge of vocational options, goal planning, and identification and use of contextual supports. A randomized block design and measurements at pretest, posttest, and 1-month follow-up were used to examine the effects of OPTIONS. Participants included 77 (n = 38 treatment, n = 39 control) adult male inmates. Results indicated that OPTIONS participants had higher career search self-efficacy, problem solving, and hopefulness scores at posttest and follow-up than did treatment-as-usual control group participants.

Vocational interventions for criminal justice populations have existed for years in various forms, but have traditionally not used an interdisciplinary approach and have shown significant limitations in effectiveness. This article informs scholars and practitioners of interdisciplinary research on vocational interventions and how knowledge from criminal justice literature and career theory can be combined so that relevant and effective theory-based vocational interventions for offenders and ex-offenders can be developed. Such an integrative approach would address the limitations of existing approaches and would foster the development of vocational interventions that go beyond what is offered currently. A model summarizing this integrative approach is provided. This article concludes by presenting understudied areas in offender career development, such as offenders’ willingness to work, illegal employment as a form of work, and the implications of a criminal record on career development. Continued research in these areas can promote effective rehabilitative efforts that meet the vocational needs of this marginalized population.

The vocational needs of offenders and ex-offenders have received little attention in the counseling psychology literature. The authors of this special issue have called attention to the importance of and possibilities associated with the development and implementation of vocational interventions for such populations. This reaction discusses the merits of the articles in this special issue, and proposes that in addition to focusing on developing effective interventions for offenders and ex-offenders, we must interrogate the U.S. prison enterprise with respect to goals, outcomes, and ultimately, social justice.

We comment on the major contributions on applications of vocational psychology to criminal justice populations. All three articles present exciting directions for vocational psychology research and practice—directions that have exceptional resonance with the field’s commitment to social justice. We are intrigued by the authors’ use of social cognitive career theory (SCCT), along with the risks–need–responsivity model, as a theoretical platform for enhancing the vocational development of offenders. We suggest that this integrative effort may be aided by inclusion of a new SCCT process model of career development. We briefly summarize this process model and consider how it may be applied to interventions designed to promote vocational outcomes and reduce recidivism with criminal justice populations.

This reaction to the major contribution (MC) “The Vocational Development of Offenders: Barriers, Interventions, and Implications for Social Justice” commends the authors for bringing an understudied and underdiscussed population to counseling psychologists. This reaction provides a contextual response to the MC in its entirety, as well as for the three articles comprising the MC. The authors are commended for educating readers about the complexities of correctional rehabilitation, emphasizing the role of work in the rehabilitation process to reduce criminal recidivism, and examining current vocational practices; however, this reaction provides practical suggestions for improving the integration of best correctional practices into vocational counseling, and provides suggestions for policy change. In addition, this reaction further emphasizes the necessity of counseling psychologists’ involvement in offender rehabilitation.

In this rejoinder, the authors respond to the three reactions by Brown, Lent, and Knoll; McWhirter; and Morgan. We begin by discussing illegal work and desistance and how vocational psychology may inform these areas. We then acknowledge the challenges in working with criminal justice populations and describe how counseling psychologists may overcome these challenges. We conclude by encouraging counseling psychologists to persist through challenges and pursue excellence in applying vocational theories and best practices to promote the positive career development of offenders.