Update: Applications of Research in Music Education

This review of the literature presents a systematic analysis of the capabilities and limitations of cochlear implant (CI) recipients with regard to music perception. Specifically, it (a) analyzes individual components of music (e.g., rhythm, timbre, and pitch) as they interface with the technical characteristics of CIs and the perceptual abilities of the recipients and (b) describes accommodations for music instruction that support successful participation of children with CIs. This article consolidates research studies from various disciplines (audiology, hearing science, speech–language pathology, CIs, and music therapy) to provide practical recommendations for educators in fostering the musical growth of children with CIs.

This article is a review of relevant literature on the use of phenomenology as a research methodology in education research, with a focus on music education research. The review is organized as follows: (a) general education, (b) music research, (c) music education research, (d) dissertations, (e) important figures, (f) themes, and (g) the future. The article concludes with a synthesis of the existing research that attempts to provide suggestions for applying the results to current research practice. The purpose of this literature review is to examine recent scholarship that uses phenomenology and to make recommendations for which areas of the teaching and learning of music might benefit most from this methodology in the future.

This literature review examines and synthesizes 30 years of research into the relationship between gender and musical instruments. Specifically, the review focuses on how this relationship affects instrument selection by grade school students entering a school music program. Topics include the gender typing of musical instruments, instrument preferences of young (preband or preorchestra) students, beliefs about which gender should play which instrument, gender influences during the instrument selection process, the status of gender stratification within instrumental ensembles, and perceptions of musicians in relation to their gender and instrument. Also discussed are theories as to why gender associations and stereotypes occur within instrumental music, including social role theory, and ways in which researchers have attempted to counteract gender as a factor in the instrument selection process. The review concludes with implications drawn from the body of research and direction for future studies.

Historically, music educators have expressed concerns about inadequate preparation to work with students with special needs, specifically desiring skills related to instruction adaptation. Research has indicated that educational supports (written words, color coding, icons, echoing, buddy system, and other visual aids) can be particularly successful for teaching students with special needs. To determine if preservice music teachers can employ these supports and determine which are most beneficial in various music settings, preservice music educators (N = 47) completed a 5-week field experience in which they taught general music concepts to secondary students with special needs incorporating educational supports. Participants rated the educational supports of echoing and icons most important when leading various activities to teach concepts in general music and predicted that the educational supports of echoing and other visual aids would be most important when teaching in various ensembles settings. For implementing assessments, participants rated icons and small groups or stations most important. Implications for preservice and in-service teachers are discussed.

Teacher turnover is an important issue in education. Studies have reported that almost half of new teachers leave by their fifth year. The problem is being examined in a number of ways, including the preparation of new teachers, costs to school districts, the impact on student achievement, and models of supply and demand. In the current study, Arizona high school band teacher turnovers were tracked during a 4-year period to compare with national trends. Also during this period, the participation of marching bands was compared with the amount of band teacher turnover at each school to see if any relationships exist. Overall, results indicate that as the amount of band teacher turnover increases, marching band participation decreases. Schools with no band teacher turnover have the most consistent levels of student participation.

The purpose of this investigation was to identify the findings of the studies devoted to the child voice, most of which have occurred in the past 25 years, and to present a synthesis of these findings with respect to the pedagogy, or art and science, of teaching children to sing. The data suggest that a philosophical disparity exists about singing, that is, teachers believe that it is an easy and natural process, whereas voice scientists support the contrary point of view. Data about children indicate that they have large ranges as infants, begin to sing with greater accuracy in pitch contour than to specific pitches, and gradually increase their range and pitch-matching accuracy as they mature. Many studies reported differences in accuracy with respect to sex, although the vocal mechanisms are virtually identical until puberty. While a variety of results exist for using text with pitch matching, for using accompaniment, for specific ranges at age levels, and for using certain vocal models, there are implications for teaching. Based on the majority of findings, it is suggested that teachers use particular activities with initial singers to help them hear their voices and learn to control the mechanism; that children learn to match one note, then short patterns, before progressing to songs; that the ranges of the children should determine the selected literature to create an effective match; and that vocal modeling be carefully done to assist in helping children match pitch and timbre. The most important element is that children can be taught to sing, suggesting that they have the mechanism in place and the teacher must properly develop their skills in singing.

The purpose of this study is to describe the decision-making processes of novice band students while engaged in individual practice. Five seventh- through ninth-grade students were videotaped while practicing and subsequently interviewed using retrospective verbal protocol. Students were asked to discuss the goals they had while practicing, their choice of practice strategies, their self-assessment process, and their feelings of efficacy. Analysis of data and prior literature resulted in the construction of a model for effective practice and suggested three implications for teachers. First, student choices about what and how to practice seem more focused when motivations are goal oriented instead of time oriented. Second, practice goals tend to be vague, which leads to difficulty in defining criteria for success and strategies for improvement. Finally, though students have knowledge of various practice strategies, their understanding of the appropriate use of the strategies is lacking.

Musicians have recognized that physical problems often accompany playing, yet examinations of performance-related injuries and medical problems remain relatively new. The type of instrument played can affect musicians’ pain-related problems as well as physical stature. The focus of this study was to determine whether physical intervention—easily performed stretches of a brief duration—administered during rehearsals at approximately 10-minute intervals would affect orchestra students’ perceptions of physical discomfort. Results of analyses focused on gender and grade revealed no significant differences, although the independent variable of instrument showed a significant difference in scores before and after rehearsal. Treatment group participants’ levels of discomfort decreased in contrast to control group participants’ scores, which increased. Music educators play an important role in being proactive about preventative and rehabilitative measures. Based on this research, it is recommended that stretches be completed periodically while playing to reduce discomfort associated with performance practice.