Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy

Safe management of electronic and electrical waste (e-waste/WEEE) is becoming a major problem for many countries around the world. In particular, developing countries face a number of issues with the generation, transboundary movement and management of e-waste. It is estimated that the world generates around 20–50 million tonnes of e-waste annually, most of it from Asian countries. Improper handling of e-waste can cause harm to the environment and human health because of its toxic components. Several countries around the world are now struggling to deal with this emerging threat. Although the current emphasis is on end-of-life management of e-waste activities, such as reuse, servicing, remanufacturing, recycling and disposal, upstream reduction of e-waste generation through green design and cleaner production is gaining much attention. Environmentally sound management (ESM) of e-waste in developing countries is absent or very limited. Transboundary movement of e-waste is a major issue throughout the region. Dealing with the informal recycling sector is a complex social and environmental issue. There are significant numbers of such challenges faced by these countries in achieving ESM of e-waste. This article aims to present a review of challenges and issues faced by Asian countries in managing their e-waste in a sustainable way.

Although waste quantification and projection are important data for waste management, the reliability of their results is difficult to verify. The present study attempted to identify the best waste quantification methods using e-waste quantification studies of mainland China as case studies. Large discrepancies in the predicted amounts of e-waste generated were found no matter whether the same or different methods of estimation are used. Moreover, even when agreements between studies were found, the agreed figures were not necessarily the correct figures. However, since without hindsight it is not possible to tell whether a projection figure is accurate, the convergence rule and a prudent approach to counting on studies conducted with meticulous scientific procedures should be adopted. Two worrying trends are noted. First, the transparency of data collection and computation methods in these studies was not high; second, irresponsible citation practices were found to have already spread to academic studies. As a result, leading organizations in the academic community should consider establishing a platform devoted to the reporting of false or dubious citations.

E-waste is one of the fastest-growing waste streams in Iran, owing to an increase in consumption of electrical and electronic equipment. Nevertheless, as is the case in some other countries, E-waste management has not received sufficient attention. For the successful implementation of any waste management plan (including an E-waste management plan), the availability of sufficient and accurate information on the quantities and composition of the waste generated and on current management conditions is a fundamental prerequisite. At present, in Iran, there is no available and accurate information that describes the characteristics and generation rate of E-waste or the actual practice of management and handling of the waste. For this initial study, eight electronic products were selected for the determination of their E-waste generation rate in the country, and two cities, Tehran and Tabriz, were selected for assessment of the current condition of E-waste management. The study found that the amount of E-waste generation in the country for the eight selected electronic items alone was 115 286, 112 914 and 115 151 metric tons in 2008, 2009 and 2010, respectively. Of the types of electronic items included in the study, televisions, with an average of 42.42%, and PCs, with an average of 32.66% accounted for the greatest proportions of the total mass of E-waste generated during 2008–2010. Currently, despite the fact that primary legislation for E-waste management (as part of general waste legislation) exists in Iran, this primary legislation has not yet been implemented. In practical terms, there is no definite policy or plan for the allocation of funds to prepare suitable equipment and facilities for the management and recycling of E-waste at the end of the products’ useful life. Proposed improvements in current conditions are identified, first by considering other countries’ experiences and then suggesting specific practical policies, rules, and regulations that should be established and applied to all levels of E-waste management. One of the most attractive E-waste management policies is an extended producer responsibility (EPR) programme in combination with a training programme at different levels of society. An approach consisting of a mandated product take back is proposed for implementing EPR in Iran. Meanwhile, the Health Ministry and the Environmental Protection Agency should strictly supervise E-waste collection, storage, and recycling and/or disposal, and the Trade and Industry Ministries must have more control over the import and production of electronic goods.

The effect of calcium-based addition on the brominate flux during printed circuit board (PCB) pyrolysis was investigated. It was found that bromine (Br) can be effectively fixed in solid phase during PCB pyrolysis by adding calcium-based waste materials. Phenol and 4-ethylphenol are the major products of pyrolysis. When the two kinds of red mud were used as additive, their content was 85.25 and 84.81%, respectively, which was higher than others. The 2-bromophenol and 2-bromo-4-methyl-benzene are the main Br-containing pyrolysis volatiles. After adding calcium-based additive, these two volatiles were apparently reduced and only small amounts of 2-bromo-4-methyl-benzene were detected in the products, namely 0.71 and 0.86%, respectively for the two kinds of red mud. Hence, no matter from the perspective of product use or simple Br-fixing, the bromine in the three-phase products can be effectively regulated and controlled by adding calcium-based waste residue during PCB pyrolysis. Finally, the Br-fixing mechanism was analysed. As a result, when calcium-based waste materials were added to the PCB pyrolysis it made bromine fix easily in the resident yielding a byproduct that can be further used.

These days, electronic waste needs to be taken into consideration due to its materials content, but due to the heterogeneity of the metals present, reprocessing of electronic waste is quite limited. The bioleaching of metals from electronic waste was investigated by using cyanogenic bacterial strains (Chromobacterium violaceum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas fluorescens). A two-step bioleaching process was followed under cyanide-forming conditions for maximum metals mobilization. Both single and mixed cultures of cyanogenic bacteria were able to mobilize metals from electronic waste with different efficiencies. In all the flasks in which high metal mobilizations were observed, the consequent biomass productions were also high. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was applied in the bioleaching process for the first time and this achieved its bioleaching ability of mobilization of metals from electronic waste. Chromobacterium violaceum as a single culture and a mixture of C. violaceum and P. aeruginosa exhibited maximum metal mobilization. Chromobacterium violaceum was capable of leaching more than 79, 69, 46, 9 and 7% of Cu, Au, Zn, Fe and Ag, respectively at an electronic waste concentration of 1% w/v. Moreover, the mixture of C. violaceum and P. aeruginosa exhibited metals leaching of more than 83, 73, 49, 13 and 8% of total Cu, Au, Zn, Fe, and Ag, respectively. Precious metals were mobilized through bioleaching which might be considered as an industrial application for recycling of electronic waste in the near future.

The estimate of future obsolete streams is one of the crucial issues for the establishment of an efficient waste collection and recycling system in China. Due to low availability of reliable data, information on discarded household appliances (HAs) is deficient in China. This study adopts a stocks-based prediction model based on material flow analysis. The model firstly models the lifetime distribution of HAs, and then the future stocks of HAs are extrapolated. By determining the initial year of calculation, the model makes a prediction of future obsolete HAs in China in the time period from 2010–2030. The results show that the discarded amount of the five major kinds of HAs will increase from 130 million units in 2010 to 216 to 221 million units by 2020, and 259 to 282 million units by 2030. A total of 4370 to 4528 million units (149 to 155 million tonnes) of obsolete HAs will be generated in China over the next 20 years. Urban households will generate significantly more obsolete HAs (about 2619 to 2723 million units) than rural households, mainly due to the difference in their HAs possession levels. Thus recycling capacity must increase if the rising quantity of domestic obsolete HAs is to be handled properly. The results of this study can help to develop the collection and recycling systems and facilities needed for the obsolete HAs generated in the future. From a methodological perspective, the stock-based model provides a suitable tool to predict the generation of discarded HAs in the future

Electronic communication devices such as mobile phones pose significant environmental risks when disposed of after the end of their useful life. Mobile communication devices are one of the fastest growing contributors to the electronic waste (e-waste) stream. Recent legislative pressure and increasing awareness about the environmental risk associated with the hazardous components of the electronic products warrants the manufacturers to reduce or replace the hazardous materials with alternatives. The present study analyses the economic consequences of reducing or replacing these hazardous materials and the possible response of the consumers. A strategic game theory model has been applied in this paper for manufacturer and consumers considering the cost difference between hazardous substances free (HSF) and hazardous substance (HS) mobile. Results suggest that the HSF mobiles can be a preferred choice of the manufacturers as well as consumers if the cost of disposal of HS mobiles can be internalized and a marginal incentive (e.g. 0.9% for a cost difference to 5%, and 5.3% for a cost difference to 10%) is given. The study further highlights the need for realizing the fact that passing on the incentives to the consumers in order to promote schemes for return back to manufacturer at its end of life for effective reuse and recycling gives higher returns.

Recycling printed circuit board waste (PCBW) waste is a hot issue of environmental protection and resource recycling. Mechanical and thermo-chemical methods are two traditional recycling processes for PCBW. In the present research, a two-step crushing process combined with a coarse-crushing step and a fine-pulverizing step was adopted, and then the crushed products were classified into seven different fractions with a standard sieve. The liberation situation and particle shape in different size fractions were observed. Properties of different size fractions, such as heating value, thermogravimetric, proximate, ultimate and chemical analysis were determined. The Rosin-Rammler model was applied to analyze the particle size distribution of crushed material. The results indicated that complete liberation of metals from the PCBW was achieved at a size less than 0.59 mm, but the nonmetal particle in the smaller-than-0.15 mm fraction is liable to aggregate. Copper was the most prominent metal in PCBW and mainly enriched in the 0.42–0.25 mm particle size. The Rosin-Rammler equation adequately fit particle size distribution data of crushed PCBW with a correlation coefficient of 0.9810. The results of heating value and proximate analysis revealed that the PCBW had a low heating value and high ash content. The combustion and pyrolysis process of PCBW was different and there was an obvious oxidation peak of Cu in combustion runs.

The volume of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is growing rapidly worldwide, making its management difficult; therefore, this should be improved as a matter of urgency. WEEE includes both essential household appliances [including televisions, refrigerators, and washing machines; but not air conditioners, where the consumption mode is more like information, communication and technology (ICT)] ICT equipment (also called high-tech household appliances). In the present study, Baoding, a medium-sized, prefecture-level city in north central China with a population of 11 million, including 1.1 million urban residents, was selected as a representative city for an investigation of recycling behaviors. A valid sample size of 346 households in Baoding was investigated, and categorized into various income and educational levels. The results showed that the major reason for discarding WEEE was malfunction of the appliance, accounting for 52% of disposals. Surveyed households with either high income or good education were more likely to consume high-tech household appliances, attracted by advanced technology, versatile functions or flexibility of use. Personal computer ownership rates were highest in households with a high income and good education—1.2 and 0.9 per home respectively. WEEE was most often sold to peddlers or hawkers from where the WEEE flowed into the second-hand market to be refurbished or repaired, and then re-sold. However, 56.3% of residents in the college community were in support of charging consumers for disposal and 61.7% were in support of including a disposal surcharge in the purchase price of new products—a percentage approximately three times that for high-income residents. Thus, high educational level appears to be currently the most important factor in raising the potential of a household’s willingness to pay for WEEE treatment cost. The findings of this study can be used to develop sound recycling systems for WEEE in mainland China.

Recycling companies play a leading role in the system of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) in China. Automotive manufacturers in China are rarely involved in recycling ELVs, and they seldom provide dismantling information for recycling companies. In addition, no professional shredding plant is available. The used automotive electronic control components recycling industry in China has yet to take shape because of the lack of supporting technology and profitable models. Given the rapid growth of the vehicle population and electronic control units in automotives in China, the used automotive electronic control components recycling industry requires immediate development. This paper analyses the current recycling system of ELVs in China and introduces the automotive product recycling technology roadmap as well as the recycling industry development goals. The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges of the current used automotive electronic control components recycling industry in China are analysed comprehensively based on the ‘strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats’ (SWOT) method. The results of the analysis indicate that this recycling industry responds well to all the factors and has good opportunities for development. Based on the analysis, new development strategies for the used automotive electronic control components recycling industry in accordance with the actual conditions of China are presented.

A new collection model was designed and tested in Catalonia (Spain) to foster the separate collection and recycling of electrical and electronic toys, with the participation of selected primary and secondary schools, as well as waste collection points and municipalities. This project approach is very original and important because small household WEEE has low rates of collection (16–21% WEEE within the EU or 5–7% WEEE in Spain) and no research on new approaches to enhance the collection of small WEEE is found in the literature. The project was successful in achieving enhanced toys collection and recycling rates, which went up from the national Spanish average of 0.5% toys before the project to 1.9 and 6% toys during the two project years, respectively. The environmental benefits of the campaign were calculated through a life-cycle approach, accounting for the avoided impact afforded by the reuse of the toys and the recycling of the valuable materials contained therein (such as metals, batteries and circuit boards) and subtracting the additional environmental burdens associated with the establishment of the collection campaign.

The ever-increasing amount of waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) has become a global problem. In view of the deleterious effects of WEEE on the environment and the valuable materials that can be reused in them, many countries have focused their attention on the management of WEEE and the recovery technologies of WEEE. The Chinese government has been active in creating a legislative and institutional framework to realize WEEE recycling. In June 2009, Chinese government launched home appliances and electronics trade-in implementation solution. This paper elaborates the home appliances trade-in policy and its significant impact on the WEEE management. The trade-in policy is not only conducive to expanding the consumption demand and promoting the balance of domestic and overseas demand, but also favorable to improving the energy efficiency and reducing environmental pollution. Under this policy, China has successfully established an effective WEEE recycling system, using the financial means and network design. Experiences gained from the trade-in policy have shown that management systems of WEEE need to be designed and implemented in a multi-stakeholder dialogue.

Waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) contain lots of valuable resources together with plenty of hazardous materials, which are considered both an attractive secondary resource and an environmental contaminant. In this study, a new technology for the recovery of solder from WPCBs using an ionic liquid of 1-ethyl-3-methylimizadolium tetrafluoroborate ([EMIM⁺][BF₄⁻]) as a heating medium was investigated. Experimental results indicate that the separation of solder from WPCBs is complete when WPCBs are heated at 240°C and [EMIM⁺][BF₄⁻] is stirred at 150 rpm for 10 min. By observing the cross sections of WPCBs before and after treatment with the ionic liquid, it has been found that there is a initial delaminating phenomenon for WPCBs, which implies that [EMIM⁺][BF₄⁻] can dissolve bromine epoxy resins of WPCBs to some extent. This clean and non-polluting technology offers a new way of recycling valuable materials from WPCBs and prevents the environmental pollution by WPCBs effectively.

Sivakumar Naganathan, Hashim Abdul Razak, and Siti Nadzriah Abdul Hamid

Effect of kaolin addition on the performance of controlled low-strength material using industrial waste incineration bottom ash, Waste Management and Research, first published as DOI: 10.1177/0734242X09355073. This version is no longer available. The version of record is published Vol 28 No 9, DOI 10.1177/0734242X10355073.

Hassan Taghipour and Mohammad Mosaferi

The Challenge of Medical Waste Management: A Case Study in Northwest of Iran-Tabriz, Waste Management and Research, first published as DOI: 10.1177/0734242X08104132. This version is no longer available. The version of record is published Vol 27 No 4, DOI 10.1177/0734242X09104132.

Jacob K Andersen, Alessio Boldrin, Thomas H Christensen, and Charlotte Scheutz

Mass balances and life-cycle inventory for a garden waste windrow composting plant (Aarhus, Denmark), Waste Management and Research, first published as DOI: 10.1177/0734242X09360216. This version is no longer available. The version of record is published Vol 28 No 11, DOI 10.1177/0734242X10360216.