It has been argued in the feminist literature that the state often contributes to patriarchal constructions of women's subordinate positions by providing political space for women's incorporation into civil society not as individuals and citizens but as members of a family belonging to the private sphere. In this paper the authors explore this question in the broad context of international labour migration in the Asia Pacific region, where migrant women are moving as paid reproductive labour in large numbers from less-developed countries to rapidly industrialising urban nodes in the region. The authors ground the ensuing issues in the specific case of Singapore, a country currently engaged in constructing a sense of nationhood among its people. Even as there is now some debate on the emergence of civil society as part of the nation-building project and possibly a larger role for social agencies which lie outside the rubric of state parameters, there are groups of women who are excluded from this embryonic discourse. One such group is the more than 100 000 female migrant domestic workers (from the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and a number of other South and Southeast Asian countries) who, as women, domestics, and noncitizens, are identified with the confines of the private sphere and proscribed from public space in the dominant (and emerging) discourses. With use of a questionnaire survey, as well as in-depth interviews with foreign domestic workers, their employers, and a number of social organisations, the authors examine the politics of exclusion at the margins of society. The aims are to explore the types of social organisations which have opened up some ‘space’ within their structures for foreign domestic workers, as well as interest groups which have certain claims to represent these women, and to clarify the roles these marginal spaces play. This helps illumine the way these women interact with mainstream Singaporean society beyond the confines of the domestic sphere and broadens the understanding of the boundaries of civil society in Singapore and the politics of being ‘inside’ and ‘outside’.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AguilarF VJr, 1996a, “Filipinos as transnational migrants”Philippine Sociological Review444–11
2.
AguilarF VJr, 1996b, “The dialectics of transnational shame and national identity”Philippine Sociological Review44101–136
3.
Anonymous, 1997“Community development councils: Return of the old community spirit”; brochure, Ministry of Community Development, Singapore
4.
AppaduraiA, 1990, “Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy”, in Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity Ed. FeatherstoneM (Sage, London) pp 295–310
5.
AWARE, 1996Ties that Bind: In Search of the Modern Singapore FamilyAssociation of Women for Action and Research (Armour, Singapore)
6.
BakanDStasiulisA B, 1997, “Negotiating citizenship: The case of foreign domestic workers in Canada”Feminist Review57112–139
7.
ChanH C, 1989, “The PAP and the structuring of the political system”, in Management of Success: The Moulding of Modern Singapore Eds SandhuK SWheatleyP (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore) pp 70–89
8.
ChanT C, 1995, “Nongovernmental organizations in Singapore”, in Emerging Civil Society in the Asia Pacific Community Ed. YamamotoT, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, and Japan Center for International Exchange, 9–17 Minami Azabu 4-Chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106, pp 215–238
9.
ChandhokeN, 1995State and Civil Society: Explorations in Political Theory (Sage, New Delhi)
10.
ChuaB H, 1993, “The changing shape of civil society in Singapore”Commentary: Civil Society11(1) 9–14
11.
ChuaB H, 1996Communitarian Ideology and Democracy in Singapore (Routledge, London)
12.
ConstableN, 1997Maid to Order in Hong Kong: Stories of Filipina Workers (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY)
13.
CracknellJ, 1993, “Issue arenas, pressure groups and environmental agendas”, in The Mass Media and Environmental Issues Ed. HansenA (Leicester University Press, Leicester) pp 3–21
14.
DavisM, 1992City of Quartz (Vintage Books, New York)
15.
DeLueS M, 1997Political Thinking, Political Theory, and Civil Society (Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA)
16.
EnglandKStiellB, 1997, “‘They think you're as stupid as your English is’ constructing foreign domestic workers in Toronto”Environment and Planning A29195–215
17.
HeyzerNWeeV, 1994, “Domestic workers in transient overseas employment: Who benefits, who profits?”, in The Trade in Domestic Workers: Causes, Mechanisms and Consequences of International Migration, Volume 1 Eds HeyzerNLycklamaGNiejholtAWeerakoonN (Zed Books, London) pp 31–102
18.
HillMLianK F, 1995The Politics of Nation Building and Citizenship in Singapore (Routledge, London)
19.
HuangSYeohB S A, 1996, “Ties that bind: State policy and migrant female domestic helpers in Singapore”Geoforum27479–493
20.
JacksonPPenroseJ, 1993, “Introduction: Placing ‘race’ and ‘nation’”, in Constructions of Race, Place and Nations Eds JacksonPPenroseJ (UCL Press, London) pp 1–23
21.
JonesD MJayasuriyaKBellD ABrownD, 1995, “Towards a model of illiberal democracy”, in Towards Illiberal Democracy in Pacific Asia Eds BellDBrownDJayasuriyaKJonesD M (Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hants) pp 163–167
22.
KofmanEEnglandK, 1997, “Citizenship and international migration: Taking account of gender, sexuality, and ‘race’”Environment and Planning A29191–193
23.
KongLYeohB S A, 1997, “The construction of national identity through the production of ritual and spectacle: An analysis of National Day parades in Singapore”Political Geography16213–239
24.
LittleJ, 1994Gender, Planning and the Policy Process (Pergamon Press, Oxford)
25.
McDowellL, 1989, “Women, gender and the organization of space”, in Horizons in Human Geography Eds GregoryDWalfordR (Macmillan, Basingstoke, Hants) pp 136–151
26.
McDowellL, 1993, “Space, place and gender relations: Part II. Identity, difference, feminist geometries and geographies”, in Progress in Human Geography17305–318
27.
McDowellLPringleR, 1992, “Women and citizenship”, in Defining Women: Social Institutions and Gender Divisions Eds McDowellLPringleR (Polity Press, Cambridge) pp 197–204
28.
MackenzieS, 1989, “Women in the city”, in New Models in GeographyVolume 2 Eds PeetRThriftN (Unwin Hyman, London) pp 109–126
29.
MarshallT H, 1950Citizenship and Social Class, and Other Essays (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
30.
MarstonS A, 1990, “Who are ‘the people’? Gender, citizenship, and the making of the American nation”Environment and Planning D: Society and Space8449–458
NicholsonL J, 1992, “Feminist theory: The private and public”, in Defining Women: Social Institutions and Gender Divisions Eds McDowellLPringleR (Polity Press, Cambridge) pp 36–43
33.
PainterJPhiloC, 1995, “Spaces of citizenship: An introduction”Political Geography14107–120
34.
PatemanC, 1992, “The patriarchal welfare state”, in Defining Women: Social Institutions and Gender Divisions Eds McDowellLPringleR (Polity Press, Cambridge) pp 223–245
35.
PetersonV S, 1996, “The politics of identification in the context of globalization”Women's Studies International Forum19(1/2) 5–15
36.
PhillipsA, 1992, “Feminism, equality and difference”, in Defining Women: Social Institutions and Gender Divisions Eds McDowellLPringleR (Polity Press, Cambridge) pp 205–222
37.
Political Geography1995, “Spaces of citizenship”Guest Eds PainterJPhiloC14 (special issue), 107–216
38.
PrattG, 1997, “Stereotypes and ambivalences: The construction of domestic workers in Vancouver, British Columbia”Gender, Place and Culture4159–177
39.
RamazanogluC, 1992, “Feminism and liberalism”, in Defining Women: Social Institutions and Gender Divisions Eds McDowellLPringleR (Polity Press, Cambridge) pp 276–292
40.
RuddickS, 1996, “Constructing difference in public spaces: Race, class, and gender as interlocking systems”Urban Geography17132–151
41.
SrinivasL, 1995, “Master—servant relationship in a cross-cultural perspective”Economic and Political Weekly 4 February, 269–278
42.
StaeheliL AThompsonA, 1997, “Citizenship, community, and struggles for public space”Professional Geographer4928–38
43.
StiellBEnglandK, 1997, “Domestic distinctions: Constructing difference among paid domestic workers in Toronto”Gender, Place and Culture4339–359
44.
The Business Times1996, “Essays focus on the family, not feminist propaganda”, 5–6 October
45.
The Straits Times1984, “Centre to fight maid ‘abuse’”, 5 August
46.
The Straits Times1987a, “Congress on Labour Law and Social Security Act doesn't cover maids but ‘they are doing well’”, 7 February
47.
The Straits Times1987b, “Centre is meeting place for foreign workers”, 5 June
48.
The Straits Times1987c, “Now's the time to stand behind Archbishop”, 6 June
49.
The Straits Times1987d, “Maid centre was important”, 10 June
50.
The Straits Times1987e, “Detainees playing with fire: Aline”, 30 July
51.
The Straits Times1987f, “Filipinos going places”, 13 December
52.
The Straits Times1988, “Govt not in favour of minimum wage”, 2 February
53.
The Straits Times1990, “Foreign maids policy relatively more liberal”, 16 January
54.
The Straits Times1991a, “‘Little India’ is just like home for these foreign workers”, 15 September
55.
The Straits Times1991b, “Don't deny workers Sunday meetings”, 17 September
56.
The Straits Times1992, “Govt will protect welfare of S'porean and foreign workers”, 7 August
57.
The Straits Times1996, “Foreign workers in S'pore given full protection”, 29 May
58.
The Straits Times1997a, “Go on … do something to put things right”, 26 February
59.
The Straits Times1997b, “PM Goh's vision of a new era for Singapore. Civil society needed to mobilise people's talents: PM”, 7 June
60.
The Straits Times1997c, “Is PM Goh's call to develop a civil society a second step forward?”, 12 June
61.
The Straits Times1997d, “Ministry: We will not condone abuse”, 12 July
62.
The Straits Times1997e, “Abused maid ‘toiled from dawn to midnight’”, 12 July
63.
The Straits Times1997f, “Woman, son charged with hurting Indonesian maid”, 25 July
64.
The Straits Times1997g, “Call to name and publish photos of the accused”, 26 July
65.
The Straits Times1997h, “Indonesian maid dies after falling 10 storeys while cleaning windows”, 27 July
66.
The Straits Times1997i, “Other shops, so fewer Thai workers at Golden Mile”, 7 August
67.
The Straits Times1997j, “Singapore to cast net worldwide for talent”, 25 August
68.
The Straits Times1997k, “Will migrants make the pie bigger or take away the icing?”, 30 August
69.
The Straits Times1997m, “Singaporeans will not be able to compete without foreign talent”, 13 September
70.
The Sunday Times1997a, “Foreign workers and compassion: Remember our ancestral past”, 20 July
71.
The Sunday Times1997b, “Indonesian maid dies after falling 10 storeys while cleaning windows”, 27 July
72.
URA, 1991, “The next lap”, Urban Redevelopment Authority, 45 Maxwell Road, URA Building, Singapore 069118
73.
van der VeerP, 1995, “Introduction: The diasporic imagination”, in Nation and Migration: The Politics of Space in the South Asian Diaspora Ed. van der VeerP (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA) pp 1–16
74.
WardK, 1990, “Introduction and overview”, in Women Workers and Global Restructuring Ed. WardK (ILR Press, New York) pp 1–22
75.
WeissM L, 1997, “From consciousness-raising to confrontation: The policy influence of women's groups in Singapore”, in Proceedings of the International Conference on Women in the Asia-Pacific Region: Persons, Powers and Politics Eds ChangTHuangSPoonJYeohB S A (National University of Singapore, Singapore) pp 684–702
76.
WestwoodS, 1995, “Gendering diaspora: Space, politics and South Asian masculinities in Britain”, in Nation and Migration: The Politics of Space in the South Asian Diaspora Ed. van der VeerP (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA) pp 197–221
77.
YamamotoT, 1995, “Integrative report”, in Emerging Civil Society in the Asia Pacific Community Ed. YamamotoT, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, and Japan Center for International Exchange, 9–17 Minami Azabu 4-Chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106, Japan, pp 1–40
78.
YeoK WLauA, 1991, “From colonialism to independence, 1945–1965”, in A History of Singapore Eds ChewE C TLeeE (Oxford University Press, Singapore) pp 117–153
79.
YeoY B G, 1991, “Civic society—between the family and the state”Speeches '91: A Bimonthly Selection of Ministerial Speeches15(3) 78–86 (Ministry of Information and the Arts, Singapore)
80.
YeoY B G, 1993, “Civic society”Speeches '93: A Bimonthly Selection of Ministerial Speeches17(6) 50–61 (Ministry of Information and the Arts, Singapore)
81.
YeohB S AHuangS, 1998, “Negotiating public space: Strategies and styles of migrant female domestic workers”Urban Studies35583–602
