Area data are commonly used in many social science disciplines, but have a number of characteristics which have necessitated the development of specialist tools for analysis and display. In this paper we discuss the application to area data of exploratory analysis methods and visualisation techniques, and in particular the growing number of software packages which provide visualisation methods to support exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA). In the exploratory analysis of nonspatial data, the data are often considered to consist of rough and smooth elements. If this idea is extended to spatial data, it can be argued that a software system for ESDA should have facilities for exploring the rough and smooth elements of both the spatial and nonspatial elements of the data. Visualisation techniques can assist with this by providing a wide range of graphical displays, in a highly interactive environment. Conceptual frameworks are developed for both ESDA and scientific visualisation, and four software packages that link graphical and cartographical views of the data are reviewed against these requirements. The packages fall into two broad groups. In one, the emphasis is on highly interactive graphics, but with few numerical methods or tools for exploring the spatial properties of the data. In the other, specialist spatial tools are provided, but the graphical tools are less flexible. It is argued that a combination of both approaches would provide a package which more fully satisfied the requirements of ESDA. The need to assess the effectiveness of different visualisation techniques in supporting and encouraging the exploratory analysis of spatial data is noted.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AnselinL, 1995, “Local indicators of spatial association—LISA”Geographical Analysis2793–115
2.
AnselinLBaoS, 1997, “Exploratory spatial data analysis linking SpaceStat and ArcView”, in Recent Developments in Spatial Analysis: Spatial Statistics, Behavioural Modelling and Neuro-computing Eds FischerMGetisA (Springer, Berlin) pp 35–59
3.
ArbiaG, 1989Spatial Data Configuration in Statistical Analysis of Regional Economic and Related Problems (Kluwer, Dordrecht)
4.
BaileyT CGatrellA C, 1995Interactive Spatial Data Analysis (Longman, Harlow, Essex)
5.
BennettR JHainingR PGriffithD A, 1984, “The problem of missing data on spatial surfaces”Annals of the Association of American Geographers74138–156
6.
BishopI DKaradaglisC, 1996, “Combining GIS based environmental modeling and visualization: Another window on the modeling process”, Proceedings of the Third Conference on Integrating GIS and Environmental Modelling, Sante Fe, New Mexico, 21–25 Jan; copy available from NCGIA Publications Office, 3510 Phelps Hall, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106–4060
7.
BrasselK EWeibelR1988, “A review and framework of automated map generalization”International journal of Geographical Information Systems2(3) 229–244
8.
BrunsdonCCharltonM E, 1996, “Developing an exploratory spatial analysis system in XLisp-Stat”, in Innovation in GISvolume 3, Ed. ParkerD (Taylor and Francis, London) pp 135–145
9.
ButtenfieldB PMarkD M, 1994, “Expert systems in cartographic design”, in Geographic Information Systems: The Microcomputer and Modern Cartography Ed. TaylorD R F (Pergamon, Oxford) pp 129–150
10.
ChampionA GGreenA EOwenD WEllisD JCoombesM G, 1987Changing Places: Britain's Demographic, Economic and Social Complexion (Edward Arnold, London)
11.
ClevelandW S, 1993, “Visualizing data”, AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ
12.
ClevelandW S, 1994, “The elements of graphing data”, AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ
13.
CliffA DOrdJ K, 1981Spatial Processes: Models and Applications (Pion, London)
14.
CookDMajureJ JSymanzikJCressieN, 1996, “Dynamic graphics in a GIS: Exploring and analyzing multivariate spatial data using linked software”Computational Statistics11467–480
15.
CraigPHaslettJUnwinA RWillsG, 1989, “Moving statistics—an extension of brushing for spatial data”, in Computing Science and Statistics. Proceedings of the 21st Symposium on the Interface (Springer, Berlin) pp 170–174
16.
CressieN, 1984, “Towards resistant geostatistics”, in Geostatistics for Natural Resources Characterization Eds VerlyGDavidMJournelA GMarechalA (Reidel, Dordrecht) pp 21–44
17.
CressieN, 1991Statistics for Spatial Data (John Wiley, New York)
18.
CuffDMattsonM T, 1982Thematic Maps: Their Design and Production (Methuen, New York)
19.
DentB D, 1985Principles of Thematic Map Design (Addison-Wesley, London)
20.
DykesJ, 1996, “Dynamic maps for spatial science: A unified approach to cartographic visualization”, in Innovation in GISvolume 3, Ed. ParkerD (Taylor and Francis, London) pp 177–187
21.
EarnshawR AWisemanN, 1992An Introductory Guide to Scientific Visualization (Springer, Berlin)
22.
FriendlyM, 1995, “Conceptual and visual models for categorical data”The American Statistican49153–160
23.
GetisAOrdJ K, 1992, “The analysis of spatial association by use of distance statistics”Geographical Analysis24189–206
24.
GoodchildMHainingR PWiseS M, 1992, “Integrating geographical information systems and spatial data analysis: Problems and possibilities”International Journal of Geographical Information Systems6407–424
25.
HainingR P, 1990Spatial Data Analysis in the Social and Environmental Sciences (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)
26.
HainingR PMaJWiseS M, 1996, “The design of a software system for the interactive spatial statistical analysis linked to a GIS”Computational Statistics11449–466
27.
HainingR PWiseS MMaJ, 1998, “Exploratory spatial data analysis in a geographic information system environment”The Statistician47457–469
28.
HaslettJWillsGUnwinA R, 1990, “SPIDER—an interactive statistical tool for the analysis of spatially distributed data”International Journal of Geographic Information Systems4285–296
29.
HoaglinD CMostellerFTukeyJ W, 1985Exploring Data Tables, Trends, and Shapes (John Wiley, New York)
30.
ICA, 1997Commission on VisualizationInternational Cartographic Association, c/o Institut Geographique National, 136bis, rue de Grenelle, Paris (http://www.geog.psu.edu/ica/ICAvis.html)
31.
McCormickB HDeFantiT ABrownM D, 1987, “Visualization in scientific computing”ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics21(6), Association for Computing Machinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036.
32.
MacDougallE B, 1992, “Exploratory analysis, dynamic statistical visualization and geographic information systems”Cartography and Geographic Information Systems19(4) 237–246
33.
MacEachrenA MKraakM-J, 1997, “Guest editorial: Exploratory cartographic visualization: Advancing the agenda”Computers and Geosciences23(4) 335–343
34.
MonmonierM S, 1991How to Lie with Maps (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL)
35.
MurchG, 1987, “Color displays and color science”, in Color and the Computer Ed. DurrettH J (Academic Press, Boston) pp 1–25
36.
NagelM, 1996, “Exploratory analysis of medical mass data”Computational Statistics11(4) 429–448
37.
OlsonJ M, 1981, “Spectrally encoded two-variable maps”Annals of the Association of American Geographers71(2) 259–276
38.
OlsonJ M, 1987, “Review of ‘Elements of Graphing Data’”The American Cartographer1488–89
39.
OpenshawS, 1984The Modifiable Areal Unit ProblemConcepts and Techniques in Modern Geography, number 38 (Geo-Abstracts, Norwich)
OusterhoutJ K, 1994Tcl and Tk Toolkit (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA)
42.
RiedwylHSchuepbachM, 1994, “Parquet diagram to plot contingency tables”, in Advances in Statistical Softwarevolume 4, Ed. FaulbaumF (Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart) pp 293–299
43.
TufteE R, 1983The Visual Display of Quantitative Information (Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT)
44.
TufteE R, 1990Envisioning Information (Graphics Press, Cheshire, CT)
45.
TukeyJ W, 1977Exploratory Data Analysis (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA)
46.
UnwinAHawkinsGHofmanHSieglB, 1996, “Interactive graphics for data sets with missing values—MANET”Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics5113–122
47.
UnwinAHofmannH, 1997, “New interactive graphics tools for exploratory analysis of spatial data”, in Innovations in GISvolume 5, Ed. CarverS (Taylor and Francis, London) pp 48–55 (other information at http://www.math.uni-augsburg.de/Manet)
48.
WiseS MHainingR PMaJ, 1997, “Regionalisation tools for the exploratory spatial analysis of health data”, in Recent Developments in Spatial Analysis: Spatial Statistics, Behavioural Modelling and Neuro-computing Eds FischerMGetisA (Springer, Berlin) pp 83–100
49.
YuleG UKendallM G, 1950An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics (Griffin, London)
