The Effects of Active Videogame Feedback and Practicing Experience on Children's Physical Activity Intensity and Enjoyment

Abstract

Objective:

The study aims to explore the effects of receiving active videogame (AVG) feedback and playing experience on individuals' moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and perceived enjoyment.

Materials and Methods:

This was a within-subject design study. The participants included 36 (n = 15 and 21 for boys and girls, respectively) fourth graders enrolled in a rural elementary school in southern Georgia area. The experiment lasted for 6 weeks with each week including three sessions. The participants were assigned in either front row (sensor feedback) or back row (no sensor feedback) during practice, which was alternated in different sessions. Two different dance games were played during the study with each game implemented for 3 weeks. The MVPA was measured with GT3X+ accelerometers. Physical activity (PA) enjoyment was assessed after the completion of the first two and last two sessions of each game. A repeated one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was used to examine the effects of AVG feedback and game on MVPA. A repeated one-way MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) was conducted for each game to examine the effects of experience and AVG feedback on enjoyment and MVPA.

Results:

No effects of AVG feedback were found for MVPA or enjoyment (P > 0.05). The effects of experience on MVPA were found for Just Dance Kids 2014 with experience decreased MVPA (P < 0.05).

Conclusion:

Students who practiced dance AVG without receiving feedback still demonstrated positive affection and accumulated similar MVPA than when practicing while receiving feedback. Experience for certain dance games tends to decrease PA intensity.

Introduction

The physical activity (PA) level among U.S. youth has been steadily decreasing in the past decades. A recent study revealed that among U.S. children and young adolescents, less than half of boys and about one-third of girls met the recommendation of participating in 60 minutes of daily moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA).¹ This relatively low PA level may be partially derived from increased screen time involvement such as playing videogames, as more than 75% of youth reported playing videogames three to seven times per week.² Active videogames (AVGs), however, may allow students to play videogames while increasing their MVPA.

Empirical studies support the use of AVGs to increase players' MVPA.³ Compared with older AVG consoles such as Nintendo^® Wii™, Microsoft's Xbox^® 360 Kinect is a novice game console that does not require players to use a hand-held controller to play the game. This controller-free design allows players to engage in full body movement, which has been proven to elicit significantly greater energy expenditure than from using the Wii.⁴ However, one of the major limitations of using Kinect AVGs is the cost of equipment. Each Kinect AVG system comprises one TV screen, one game console, and one Kinect sensor. In general, Kinect games were designed to allow each sensor to track up to four players' movements for the purpose of providing feedback. This limitation creates both financial and space challenges for practitioners who want to use Kinect AVGs with students in a school setting.

One possible solution is to place more students at one station, with some of them mimicking the on-screen movements without receiving the sensory feedback. In fact, this strategy had been conducted in previous studies. For example, owing to the shortage of equipment, students were asked to practice on dummy dance mats while participating in the Dance Dance Revolution game.⁵ Nevertheless, the effects of receiving AVG sensory feedback on players' PA levels and the perceived enjoyment have rarely been examined. In a recent study, Lin⁶ found that college-age students accumulated similar PA intensity levels in dance AVGs no matter whether they received sensory feedback from the AVG. In Lin's study, however, data were only collected for a short period of time, with each participant practicing three dance songs. It is not clear whether receiving AVG feedback could influence individuals' PA and enjoyment in a longitudinal study.

Another area that has not been extensively studied is the effect of experience playing AVGs on PA and enjoyment. Exploring these questions would help us better understand the sustainability of PA and affection of playing AVGs in an extensive period of time. Contradictory findings have been generated in previous studies, with one study finding experienced AVG players accumulated greater energy expenditure than inexperienced players did,⁷ whereas another study found the opposite is true.⁸ One of the major limitations of these two studies was the failure to control the difficulty level of the AVG. For example, in the Sell et al.⁷ study, experienced players practiced at higher difficulty levels than the inexperienced players. Similarly, both experienced and inexperienced players were allowed to self-select and play the various difficulty levels of the AVG in the Kraft et al.⁸ study, which generated inaccurate results. In addition, it is not clear how individuals' affection of playing AVGs changes as their experience with AVGs increases. It is also interesting to explore whether sensor feedback from AVGs could moderate the changes of PA and affection as users experience with AVGs increases.

Accordingly, we designed a 6-week longitudinal experiment. The study aimed to examine the effects of receiving AVG feedback and playing experience on individuals' MVPA levels and perceived enjoyment. Specifically, the research examined (1) the effects of receiving AVG feedback and the moderating effect different games (i.e., Zumba Kids, Just Dance Kids) had on students' PA levels and (2) the effects of playing experience and the moderating effect of receiving AVG feedback on students' PA levels and perceived enjoyment. Findings of the study provide useful information to practitioners who would like to implement AVG technology in a school setting.

Materials and Methods

Participants

The study was conducted at an elementary school located in a rural area of southern Georgia. The participants came from all four classes in fourth grade. The criterion for participating in the study was that students had to be physically healthy as indicated by a self-report and could participate in MVPA. All students from four classes (N = 66) were provided with parental permission forms and 36 of them returned the signed form (returning rate = 55%). All 36 students then signed consent forms indicating their willingness to participate in the study. Among the 36 participants, there were more girls (n = 21, 58.3%) than boys (n = 15, 41.7%). The participants ranged in age from 9 to 11 years old with a mean age of 10.17 years (SD = 0.45). Most participants were Caucasian (n = 23, 63.9%), whereas others were African American (n = 6, 16.7%), Hispanic (n = 4, 11.1%), or multiracial (n = 3, 8.3%). Ethical approval was granted by the researcher's Institutional Review Board.

Measurements

Anthropometry

Participants' height and weight were measured to the nearest 0.01 cm and 0.01 kg, respectively, using standardized height/weight measuring instruments before the intervention. Each participants' body mass index (BMI) was then calculated and was categorized into either normal weight (<85th percentile) or overweight/obese (>85th percentile) based on the gender- and age-specific criteria established by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).⁹ An experienced physical education (PE) teacher with more than 20 years of teaching experience conducted height/weight measurements.

PA level

Participants' PA level was measured with GT3X+ Actigraph^® accelerometers worn over their right hip on the elastic belt during each practice session. Before data collection, Actilife 6^® software was used to initialize each one of the accelerometers at a sampling rate of 30 Hz. The data were downloaded in 15-second epochs. The GT3X+ is an accelerometer measuring movements in three planes (i.e., vertical, mediplateral, and anteroposterior).¹⁰ The vertical axis data were used to calculate the average counts per minute from which Everson cut points¹¹ were applied to estimate the time and the percentage time engaged in light, moderate, vigorous, and MVPA. For interest of this study, the percentage of MVPA devoted in each session was calculated and included in data analysis. A previous study demonstrated that Everson's cut points provide the most accurate estimation for four levels of PA intensity in children and young adolescents between the ages of 5 and 15 years.¹²

PA enjoyment

A modified Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) was validated to be used for students at the elementary school level.¹³ The questionnaire is a 16-item, five-point Likert scale anchored by 1 = disagree a lot to 5 = agree a lot. In this study, five items were used from the modified PACES for PA enjoyment measurement with two positively worded indicators and three negatively worded items.¹⁴ The three negatively worded items were reverse coded to calculate the mean of all five items to represent the composite score of PA enjoyment ranging from 1 to 5. A recent study reported the satisfactory inter-rater reliability of this five-item scale using elementary school students as participants (a = 0.87).¹⁴

Procedure

This was a within-subject design study. The experiments were conducted during regular PE class time and lasted for 6 weeks with each week including three sessions. To comply with PE class schedule, students participated in each AVG session for ∼40 minutes. One session was missed because of weather cancelling school that day. Thus, students practiced AVGs for a total of 17 sessions. Two games (i.e., Zumba Kids and Just Dance Kids 2014) were played during the study, with each game implemented for 3 weeks (eight sessions for Zumba Kids and nine sessions for Just Dance Kids 2014). Specifically, six Xbox^® 360 Kinect AVG stations were set up in an indoor gymnasium. Each AVG station included one 32-inch TV screen, one game console, and one Kinect sensor that were placed on a TV cart. During the first practice session, six participants were randomly assigned by the primary investigator at each station, where three randomly selected students were asked to participate in the AVG in the front row while the other three students participated in the back row. The participants were informed to alternate front and back row positions during different practice session while maintaining their in-row position (i.e., left, middle, and right). The primary investigator of the study checked the participants' practice position and helped secure GT3X+ accelerometers on the right side of the students' waist line before each session started.

The nonstop game version was selected for each AVG for each practice session before arrival of students, which enabled all songs in the AVG's repertoire to be randomly played. During AVG play, three to four characters were dancing on the screen from which all participants were mimicking their dance movements. The Kinect sensor, however, can only track the movements of the front-row players, providing feedback regarding the accuracy of the movements using cues such as ok, good, and great. Players in the back row can only mimic dance movements without receiving any Kinect feedback.

Immediately after the completion of the first two and last two sessions of each game (i.e., Zumba Kids and Just Dance Kids 2014), the participants completed a PACES. That is, the participants' affection for playing the AVG was measured four times for each game (i.e., the first two sessions while practicing in the front and back rows, and the last two sessions while practicing in the front and back rows). The primary investigator and a PE teacher acted as facilitators during the sessions and provided only encouragement to students.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed in three steps. First, descriptive statistics were obtained to examine the participants' characteristics by gender (Table 1). Second, a one-way ANOVA with repeated measures was conducted to examine the effects of AVG feedback (i.e., front/back row practicing position; within-subject variable) and game (i.e., Zumba Kids/Just Dance Kids 2014; between-subject variable), as well as the interactions between AVG feedback and game on MVPA percentage while accounting for gender and BMI. Third, for each AVG, a one-way MANOVA with repeated measures was used to examine the effects of practicing experience, AVG feedback, as well as the interactions between experience and AVG feedback on enjoyment and MVPA percentage. Specifically, for each game, the percentage of MVPA and perceived enjoyment during the first two sessions (time 1) and last two sessions (time 2) were treated as within-subject variables, whereas practicing position (front/back row) was treated as a between-subject variable controlling for gender and BMI category.

Table 1.

Characteristics of the Participants by Gender

	Boys (N = 15)	Girls (N = 20)
Age (years)	10.07 ± 0.46	10.2 ± 0.41
Height (cm)	139.60 ± 0.07	139.9 ± 0.09
Weight (kg)	39.55 ± 9.76	39.23 ± 12.53
BMI	20.26 ± 4.60	19.96 ± 5.55
Normal weight [N (%)]	8 (53.3)	12 (60)
Overweight/obese [N (%)]	7 (46.7)	8 (40)

BMI, body mass index.

Results

The characteristics of the participants are listed in Table 1 by gender. There was no significant age difference between genders based on t-test (P < 0.05). Results from the repeated ANOVA showed that the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices was met (P > 0.05). The findings did not show significant multivariate effects for AVG feedback [Wilks' Λ = 0.95, F (1, 66) = 3.39, P > 0.05, Partial η² = 0.05] or the interaction between AVG feedback and games [Wilks' Λ = 0.99, F (1, 66) = 0.46, P > 0.05, Partial η² = 0.01] on MVPA percentage. A significant AVG effect was found [F (1, 66) = 4.96, P < 0.05, Partial η² = 0.07] with Zumba Kids (M = 23.98, SD = 12.29) generating a significantly greater MVPA percentage than Just Dance Kids (M = 18.15, SD = 9.93) did (Table 2).

Table 2.

Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity Percentage by Different Games and Practicing Positions

	Front row, M (SD)	Back row, M (SD)	Total, M (SD)
Zumba Kids	24.79 (12.97)	23.16 (12.39)	23.98 (12.29)^*
Just Dance Kids	18.51 (9.43)	17.78 (10.95)	18.15 (9.93)^*

P < 0.05.

M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

Results from the repeated MANOVA for AVG of Zumba Kids revealed that the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance was met (P > 0.05). Multivariate tests did not find significant effects of experience [Wilks' Λ = 0.99, F (2, 65) = 0.43, P > 0.05, Partial η² = 0.01], AVG feedback [Wilks' Λ = 0.97, F (2, 65) = 0.94, P > 0.05, Partial η² = 0.03], or the interactions between experience and AVG feedback [Wilks' Λ = 0.95, F (2, 65) = 1.74, P > 0.05, Partial η² = 0.05] on MVPA percentage or enjoyment (Table 3). Findings from the repeated MANOVA for the AVG of Just Dance Kids 2014 showed that the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance was met (P > 0.05). Significant multivariate experience effects were found [Wilks' Λ = 0.84, F (2, 65) = 6.20, P < 0.05, Partial η² = 0.16]. Follow-up univariate tests revealed significant effects of experience only for MVPA percentage [F (1, 66) = 4.01, P < 0.05, Partial η² = 0.06] with the first two sessions accumulating a greater MVPA percentage (M = 22.13, SD = 14.68) than the last two sessions did (M = 19.29, SD = 13.11). No significant multivariate effects of AVG feedback [Wilks' Λ = 0.99, F (2, 65) = 0.23, P > 0.05, Partial η² = 0.01] or the interactions between experience and feedback [Wilks' Λ = 0.99, F (2, 65) = 0.48, P > 0.05, Partial η² = 0.01] were found (Table 3).

Table 3.

Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity Percentage and Physical Activity Enjoyment by Practicing Experience and Position for Different Active Videogames

	MVPA percentage		PA enjoyment
	First two sessions, M (SD)	Last two sessions, M (SD)	First two sessions, M (SD)	Last two sessions, M (SD)
Zumba Kids
Total	24.48 (16.47)	25.29 (13.90)	4.49 (0.72)	4.19 (0.85)
Front row	27.77 (16.37)	25.87 (13.96)	4.60 (0.55)	4.18 (0.88)
Back row	21.18 (16.13)	24.70 (14.00)	4.39 (0.86)	4.21 (0.84)
Just Dance Kids
Total	22.13 (14.68)^*	19.29 (13.11)^*	4.22 (1.13)	4.70 (0.48)
Front row	23.25 (13.53)	19.62 (11.57)	4.25 (1.18)	4.59 (0.57)
Back row	21.00 (15.87)	18.97 (14.66)	4.20 (1.10)	4.81 (0.36)

P < 0.05.

MVPA, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; PA, physical activity.

Discussion

This study explored the effects of AVG feedback and experience on MVPA levels and perceived enjoyment of two Kinect AVGs. The findings provide important information to practitioners for better implementing AVGs in school settings.

No significant MVPA difference was found between practicing in the front and back rows for both games. In addition, the perception of PA enjoyment was similarly high when practicing in both rows. As Kinect sensor can only track movements in the front row, this finding implies that the feedback provided by the AVG sensor did not increase PA intensity or enjoyment. This is an encouraging finding, as it may eliminate the concern of placing more players at one AVG station than can be tracked by the Kinect sensor. This finding may be especially applicable to schools with tight budgets and limited space, as less AVG systems need to be purchased and set up. This finding is also consistent with a recent study in which both AVG feedback and nonfeedback conditions generated similar PA intensity in college students.⁶ Cautions, however, need to be taken when generalizing this finding to all AVGs. Both Lin⁶ and our study only tested dance games; it is possible that AVG feedback may have positive effects in other games. For example, individuals playing sports games may rely on Kinect feedback to score. Playing such games without receiving feedback might diminish the affection and motivation for engagement. Clearly, more research is needed to examine the effects of Kinect feedback on PA intensity and enjoyment in other AVGs.

The Zumba Kids game generated greater MVPA than did Just Dance Kids 2014. Nevertheless, neither game met the recommendation of devoting 50% of class time to MVPA,¹⁵ as the mean MVPA percentage was 23.98 and 18.15 for Zumba Kids and Just Dance Kids 2014, respectively. The intensity of PA while engaging in Kinect AVGs may depend on several factors such as the type of AVG played, the age group of participants, and the measurement method of PA. Using a different type of accelerometer, college students practicing the Kinect game Your Shape Fitness were found to have spent more than 90% of their time doing MVPA during a 30-minute practice session.¹⁶ The inadequate percentage of time doing MVPA in this study may be affected by the relatively longer time of each session as well as the songs randomly chosen by the game console. It is possible that some songs may not be favored by some participants, which may decrease their motivation to give their full effort. Future studies should measure different age groups' PA intensity objectively with continued use of validated accelerometers in sessions lasting for shorter periods of time. In addition, different AVGs should be examined to identify games that could help generate greater PA intensity. It would also be interesting to measure PA levels when the participants engaged in self-selected programs.

The effects of AVG playing experience on PA intensity had inconsistent findings between two different AVGs. In the sessions using Zumba Kids, the first and last two sessions generated similar PA intensity. In the sessions using Just Dance Kids 2014, participants exhibited lower PA intensity during the last two sessions than during the first two sessions. Unlike previous studies comparing PA levels between experienced players performing harder levels and inexperienced players performing easier levels of AVGs,^7,8 participants in this study performed the same level of dance games for each game unit. This finding seems to support the view that for certain AVGs, experienced players perform more efficient movements, which, in turn, could decrease PA intensity. As research in this area is limited, more studies are warranted in the future before a solid conclusion can be made.

The amount of experience playing AVGs did not affect participants' PA enjoyment in our study. The participants generally sustained positive affection as demonstrated by relatively high enjoyment scores when they engaged at the beginning and toward the end of each AVG unit (mean PA enjoyment >4 for all measurements). This finding may be because of relatively rich social interactions among children during practice when they engaged in group dancing featuring funny songs and dance moves. A similar finding was reported in a follow-up study during which students were exposed to AVGs again after several months.¹⁷ PA enjoyment is an important indicator of PA engagement.¹⁸ Future studies should expand our findings by testing the effects of different AVGs and playing time on PA enjoyment of different age groups.

Several limitations need to be acknowledged. First, only two Kinect dance games were examined. Future studies should focus on various other dance games to explore whether similar findings can be obtained. Second, this study placed only six participants at each AVG station. It is necessary to test the effects of AVG feedback on PA intensity and enjoyment with more participants practicing at the same station. Third, it is not clear whether the front row players actually paid attention to the AVG feedback during practice; qualitative methods need to be utilized in future studies to have a better understanding of students' affection toward AVG feedback. Finally, findings should be interpreted with caution as all participants knew they were being observed and tracked on physical activity because of the presence of the lead author as well as wearing accelerometers. Such awareness may influence the impact of being placed in the front/back row. Despite these limitations, this longitudinal study is among the very few that empirically tested the effects of AVG playing experience and feedback during AVG sessions on PA intensity and enjoyment of different Kinect AVGs. Findings can provide implications to better implement AVG use in school settings.

Footnotes

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by the Faculty Research Seed Grant (FRSG) Second Fiscal Year 2014–2015 Competition of Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia.

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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