Abstract
It is increasingly recognized that community attitudes impact on the research trajectory, entry, and reception of new biotechnologies. Yet biogerontologists have generally been dismissive of public concerns about life extension. There is some evidence that biogerontological research agendas have not been communicated effectively, with studies finding that most community members have little or no knowledge of life extension research. In the absence of knowledge, community members' attitudes may well be shaped by issues raised in popular portrayals of life extension (e.g., in movies). To investigate how popular portrayals of life extension may influence community attitudes, I conducted an analysis of 19 films depicting human life extension across different genres. I focussed on how the pursuit of life extension was depicted, how life extension was achieved, the levels of interest in life extension shown by characters in the films, and the experiences of extended life depicted both at an individual and societal level. This paper compares the results of this analysis with the literature on community attitudes to life extension and makes recommendations about the issues in which the public may require reassurance if they are to support and accept life extension technologies.
Introduction
R
A team of researchers at The University of Queensland, including myself, conducted a study of community attitudes to “strong life extension,” i.e., extension of the human life span beyond the current maximum. 7 We conducted 57 individual interviews and eight focus groups with Australians aged 20–89. 8,9 The views of policymakers 9 and researchers in aging 10 were also included in the study. We found limited knowledge of biogerontological research (even among researchers in the field of aging). Community members did use an existing frame of reference to make sense of the issues surrounding human life extension, but it was not scientific. They often explained their opinions by referencing conceptualizations of life extension in popular culture, from literature (e.g., The Picture of Dorian Gray), television (e.g. Futurama), and movies (e.g. Highlander). from literature, television, and movies. They saw these sources as a legitimate basis for discussing life extension. For example:
Back in the 1930's a novelist called Aldous Huxley wrote a novel called “After Many A Summer”, … in which a very wealthy American wanted to go on living forever, and he did it by eating carp livers or something, but it reduced him to the status of an ape. Maybe a précis, or synopsis of that would be useful to present to future focus groups, as a way of helping to focus on what the issues are (Focus Group 1—Older Community).
Another focus group participant believed as a matter of fact that the price of immortality was not having children. The view that immortality entailed a loss of fertility features in popular conceptualizations, 11 which may have informed this participant's opinions. In one case, a participant even seemed to imply that the knowledge they had gained about life extension from popular portrayals was more relevant to their opinions than scientific knowledge:
Have you heard of the International Centre on Longevity?…I went to their first conference in 2005, and I remember listening to a bloke talking about research around ageing and life extension. I mean I'd been involved in ageing for six/seven years and this was the first time I'd heard someone talk about extending life.…I thought ‘that's interesting’. This is a diversion, but I mean Tom Cruise made a movie called Vanilla Sky and like to me that sort of was life extension, and that sort of concept is what subjectively I have in my mind sometimes when you talk about that (life extension) (Policymaker 1–58, man).
In an effort to understand how popular portrayals of life extension may influence community attitudes, I analyzed 19 films that depicted human life extension in very different film genres. I adopted a similar approach to Biotechnology Australia's study “Cloning at the Movies,” 12 comparing the key messages about life extension depicted in films and examining their possible impact on community attitudes toward life extension.
Methods
I selected a diverse range of films focused primarily on life extension (the pursuit of life extension, or the experience of life extension). These were found by internet searches for the terms “life extension”, “immortality”, “live forever”, and “anti-ageing”. The focus was on movies with a wide release and a mass audience (i.e., efforts were made to exclude more obscure titles and films that appeal to smaller audiences, e.g., art house, animation, etc). Thus, movies with famous actors and with popular appeal were the focus of the study. Efforts were also made to include a range of genres and movies released over a broad period of time (1973–2011) to maximize the diversity within the sample.
Theoretical sampling decisions were made in selecting the films. Early in the study, I realized that in many movies life extension is only achieved by transforming the human into something that could not be considered human (e.g., a vampire or zombie). After examining two such movies (The Hunger and Interview with the Vampire), it was decided that the research should focus on movies in which the individual remained human (at least in appearance) during their extended lives to maximize the potential for community members to identify with the individual.
Later in the study, it was noted that while most movies starred individuals who could be considered to be the “ideal” age (approximately 20–40 years), some included stars that were considerably younger (e.g., Tuck Everlasting) or older (e.g., Cocoon, Cocoon II: The Return, and Golden Years). Efforts were then made to include all movies that contained older or younger stars, even if they were not released to a mass audience (e.g., Golden Years) to investigate differences and similarities in movies that included varied ages of characters.
The resulting sample (see Table 1) consisted of 19 popular portrayals of life extension. Although most were feature films, one was a mini-series that has since been compiled into a movie (Golden Years) and one was an episode of a popular TV series that went to air during the research (Doctor Who: The Lazarus Experiment). For ease of discussion, all will be referred to as films.
Detailed notes on the characters, dialogue, and action of each film were taken. Everything that could be potentially relevant was noted, including the verbatim transcription of all relevant dialogue. Where possible, scripts or screenplays were downloaded and analyzed to ensure that nothing was missed. The extensive notes that resulted were then analyzed according to the following research questions: 1. What methods were used to achieve life extension? 2. How was the pursuit of life extension depicted? 3. What did the films suggest about the characters' interest in life extension and the choice to extend life? 4. How was the experience of an extended life depicted at both individual and societal levels?
Efforts were not made to examine the scientific accuracy or realism of the films.
Results
The means of life extension
The films analyzed presented a variety of means of life extension (see Table 2). Some methods seemed to draw on mythic symbolism (e.g., the fountain of youth, the tree of life). For example, life extension came in the form of liquid or water in Death Becomes Her and Gulliver's Travels, as an extract from a Guatemalan tree in The Fountain, and as a piece of flora (an orchid) in Anacondas. In Tuck Everlasting, fountain and tree of life symbolism were combined: The spring of water emerged from a tree and pooled in its roots to provide the means for life extension.
In two films (The Hunger and Interview with the Vampire), life extension was achieved through vampirism, and in another two (Cocoon and Cocoon II: The Return) the method of life extension was alien in origin and never made explicitly clear. The means of life extension was left to the imagination in two films (Highlander and Orlando), whose characters appear to have been born into an extended life.
In 42% of films (n=8), the method of life extension was presented in a scientific (as opposed to magical or supernatural) manner. In Anacondas, researchers discover the Blood Orchid (Perenia Immortalis), which can prolong cellular life beyond the Hayflick limit. In A Little Bit of Soul, researchers investigating the disease of premature aging, progeria, used a virus to correct faulty genes and immortalize cells, thereby allowing them to stop or reverse aging. In Doctor Who the means of life extension was described as:
Hypersonic soundwaves to destabilise the cell structure and a metagenic program to manipulate the coding in the protein strands (Doctor Who: The Lazarus Experiment).
In The Fountain, researchers discovered that a compound from a Guatemalan tree rejuvenated the test subject (a macaque) through the repair of bodily injuries and deterioration and reversal of the degeneration of neural activity produced by aging. A neuroscientist, Ari Handel, is credited with co-writing the script.
The pursuit of life extension
The pursuit of life extension was described as groundbreaking but dangerous (see Table 2). Efforts to extend human life were presented as having the potential to change the world forever (A Little Bit of Soul, Doctor Who). A life-extending technology was described as the “biggest medical discovery in history,” “bigger than penicillin,” and even “bigger than Viagra.” A failure to pursue life extension was described as a “crime against humanity” (Anacondas). It would be:
… the most important advance since Rutherford split the atom, (and) the biggest leap since Armstrong stood on the moon (Doctor Who).
Life extension was presented as the next logical step in our evolution (In Time). However, it seems that the audience is actively discouraged from sharing this enthusiasm for life extension. In fact, it seems that the audience is discouraged from identifying with life extension scientists and those who choose life extension. One way this was done was by presenting life extension research as unscientific.
This isn't science! You've no right to experiment with this (The Asphyx).
One film suggested that life extension was more appropriately described as “beauty therapy” rather than science (A Little Bit of Soul).
Almost without exception, life extension scientists were depicted as having tunnel vision and as arrogant, irrational, and reckless. For example, in The Fountain the scientist was reprimanded for his recklessness and is told that he has lost perspective. In Zardoz, it was “renegade scientists” that created the means of life extension. In Golden Years a stereotypical “mad scientist,” complete with fuzzy hair on end and evil pyramid hand gestures, ignored all of his colleagues' suggestions to follow protocol and reduce risk. In case the viewer misses the very obvious suggestion that this scientist is crazy, he is also shown talking to his dead father and sleeping on his grave.
Life extension scientists are frequently presented as inspired by individualistic motivations, such as the selfish desire to extend one's own life or the lives of loved ones (in order not to have to live without them) (e.g., The Asphyx, The Fountain, Doctor Who). Researchers are also represented as driven by the desire for power and money (e.g., Anacondas, Doctor Who). Even researchers who were originally motivated by altruistic reasons (such as curing those with progeria) are represented as having lost sight of their original goal and pursuing life extension for reasons of power and money (A Little Bit of Soul).
The pursuit of life extension is shown as being dangerous, with individuals pursuing life extension often risking their lives. For example, in The Asphyx, individuals had to be on the brink of death before they could extend their lives, and sometimes this window was missed. Perhaps the best evidence of the risks was the high death toll (n=6) among those involved in pursuing life extension in Anacondas. In this film, the snakes found the means to life extension first, and their lengthened lives resulted in them becoming very large; they subsequently killed many in the research party.
Some films depict hidden risks of an extended life. Individuals whose lives had been extended may only deceptively appear to be young and healthy (Death Becomes Her, Gulliver's Travels). Only one film explicitly connected hidden risks to the science of life extension. In Doctor Who, Lazarus' life extending experiment on himself opens a “Pandora's box,” resulting in the activation of dormant genes “evolution rejected 40 million years ago” that turn Lazarus into a scorpion-like monster who kills others by draining their energy.
Life extension was not only dangerous and risky to the individual; its pursuit was presented as inadequately controlled. Researchers were allowed to ignore scientific protocols and guidelines for ethical research because the goal justified the means. For example, in Golden Years the researcher was allowed to continue his research despite numerous breaches of protocol that ranged from mishandling dangerous materials to faking scientific data.
This Doctor of yours has got something real important locked up inside his head. They'd let him start up (his research) again if he was Norman Bates (character in the famous Psycho movies) (The Golden Years).
The pursuit of life extension was not only presented as inadequately controlled but also as a secret from the general community (42% of films).
Life extension science was thus presented as unscientific, dangerous, unregulated, and secretive. Additional ways that filmmakers rendered life extension less attractive to the viewer were descriptions of it as unnatural or defying or violating nature (n=7). Only two films questioned the idea that we should not tamper with nature.
The way nature's been treating us I don't mind cheating her a little (Cocoon).
Nature has a lot to answer for (Dorian Gray).
Eight films (42%) discussed life extension in religious terms. Mortals described immortals as having “the devil in them” (Highlander) or as having “sold their soul to the devil” (Tuck Everlasting). In Interview with the Vampire, Louis tells Lestat that he was condemned to hell when he was made into a vampire. Being immortal is described as being like god and therefore the pursuit of human immortality is described as “blasphemy” (Tuck Everlasting), “heresy” (The Fountain), and “unholy” (Dorian Gray).
It's wrong…we're all of us merely creatures of God, not God (The Asphyx).
In one case, life extension research was funded by Satanists (A Little Bit of Soul).
In short, life extension was presented as ground breaking, but unscientific, unnatural, and unholy, a risky and secretive pursuit that was inadequately controlled. Those who pursued it suffered from tunnel vision and had no concern for proper scientific procedures. The dominant message was that we cannot trust scientists to police themselves because they are motivated by individualistic and selfish reasons, and are irrational and reckless.
The choice to extend life
The nature of the choice between a normal human life span and an extended life, featured in the majority (74%) of films, was a dominant theme in many of these (see Table 3). Some individuals were not given a choice because they were created immortal (e.g., Highlander) or unwittingly extended their own lives (e.g., Tuck Everlasting).
Some characters were given the choice to extend their lives, but it was not always a completely informed choice (e.g., The Hunger). For instance, Dorian is not aware that he has made the choice until later in the story (Dorian Gray). In Death Becomes Her, the choice is not fully informed.
Madeline: Bottoms up!
(Madeline drinks the potion)
Lisle: But first, a warning!
Madeline: NOW a warning? (Death Becomes Her).
Without exception, life extension was presented as a choice that individuals should make for themselves after being informed of all consequences. The films that were most emphatic about the individual nature of the decision were Cocoon and Cocoon II. These films suggested that the choice to extend one's life should be made by the individual, and that this decision should be respected by others.
Three films (Cocoon, Tuck Everlasting, Gulliver's Travels) suggested that life extension is something most, if not all people, would want.
If people find out about the spring they'll trample over each other to get to that water (Tuck Everlasting).
However, most films were critical of those who chose life extension, and praised those who did not.
Choosing life extension
Over half (approximately 60%) of the films depicted individuals choosing life extension, and several more contained individuals who desired it but did not succeed in their quest. In the majority of these cases, those who chose life extension were depicted as selfish, vain, fearful, irrational, and even crazy. Characters that desired life extension were shown looking into the mirror and agonizing over changes to their appearance with age (Death Becomes Her, Tuck Everlasting, Vanilla Sky). Their motives were presented as a fear of aging and death. For example, Lazarus explains his attitude toward death by recounting a story of feeling helpless as a child during a blitz:
I swore I'd never face death like that again, so defenceless. I would arm myself, fight back, defeat it (Doctor Who).
While some were primarily motivated by a fear of death, for many fear of aging, and particularly the appearance of aging, was the primary motivator. For example, in Death Becomes Her, Madeleine (Meryl Streep) sought life extension only after being refused further cosmetic procedures. In A Little Bit of Soul, the character who desired life extension repeated her 39th birthday every year because she feared turning 40.
Do you have any idea what it's like growing up a woman and a Satanist? It isn't easy I can tell you. Can you conceive of how terrified I am of ageing and death? To be tortured with the loss of beauty in this life and the promise of boiling oil in the next? (A Little Bit of Soul).
The only exceptions to the rule that those who choose life extension are vain, selfish, and fearful were in A Little Bit of Soul, Cocoon, and its sequel. In the Cocoon movies, those that chose life extension did not want to age and die, but were not presented as being fearful and desperate. Instead they were presented as rational individuals who made decisions that were right for their individual circumstances. In A Little Bit of Soul, the vain, fearful Satanist who desired life extension does not have her request met. Instead the only characters who extended their lives were an elderly lady with bad arthritis and a prematurely aging child, both of whom were depicted as essentially good people. The implication seemed to be that these technologies should be used to restore rather than enhance. Only the vain and fearful would want to enhance a normal life.
Choosing not to extend life
Approximately one-half of the films analyzed (n=9) included characters who chose not to extend their lives or to renounce their immortality. For example, in Death Becomes Her, Dr. Ernest Menville (Bruce Willis) finds himself suspended over a large drop with the life-extending potion in his hand. The other two main characters who have extended their lives implore him to do the same to avoid dying. He chooses to drop the potion just before he falls and effectively chooses immediate mortality over life extension. Similarly Dorian Gray chooses immediate mortality rather than continue to be eternally youthful, when he destroys the painting that has extended his life.
The characters who chose not to extend their lives are depicted as normal, calm, rational, and mentally healthy individuals and are typically the heroes of the films. There is no indication of the vanity and fearfulness that is attributed to those who chose to extend their lives. The fact that very little is said about the reasons for deciding against life extension suggests that it is normal and natural not to want to extend one's life.
The experience of an extended life
These films have described the experience of life extension from both individual and societal perspectives (see Table 3). They drew attention to the benefits of an extended life/eternal youth such as experiencing lots of different things (Orlando), including many pleasurable experiences (Dorian Gray), witnessing lots of history (Highlander), collecting riches and antiquities (Hunger, Highlander), and being able to help others (Gulliver's Travels). However, these benefits were generally outweighed by the portrayed negatives of an extended life. For example, eternal beauty was a mask for decrepitude in two depictions (Death Becomes Her, Gulliver's Travels). Generally the pleasures of an extended life wore thin.
I can assure you that pleasure is very different to happiness. I mean some things are more precious because they don't last (Dorian Gray).
In the majority (52%) of films, those who have extended their lives were portrayed as bored, tired, jaded, cynical, aimless, frustrated, stagnating, and longing to die.
The day comes when you've had enough. Your mind can be spent even if your body's not. We want to die. We need to (In Time).
An extended life was described as a “nightmare” (Vanilla Sky), and a “curse” (Doctor Who), and as “not really living” (Tuck Everlasting, In Time). The loneliness of an extended life was emphasized in 26% of films, and in many cases immortals were socially isolated and ostracized. An extended life generally meant no lasting love or repeated heartbreak (26%), and sometimes the loss of the ability to have children (16%).
Although the price of immortality was often depicted as a lack of children and lasting love in popular representations, there were some exceptions. In the film Cocoon and its sequel, immortals had lasting relationships. In the relationships in these films, both partners were immortal, so immortality does not inevitably produce heartbreak. Furthermore, life extension did not mean an end to procreation in Cocoon: The Return and Orlando.
While life extension had some positives for individuals (albeit usually outweighed by the negatives), there was no mention of societal positives. Instead the films identified major problems that would stem from human life extension. A prominent theme (32%) was that life extension would create or exacerbate social divides. Access to it would be unequally (and unfairly) distributed (21%). Often those with extended lives depended on those whose lives were not extended to support them (21%), and thus the life-extended were represented as a drain on society. Vampires are an obvious example of immortals that depend on the mortals to survive (The Hunger, Interview with the Vampire), but there were other examples of this theme. In Doctor Who, Lazarus replenished his own supplies by draining the energy of others. In Zardoz, immortals depended on another race (the “brutals”) to support them by providing food and labor, and in In Time the time poor supported the time rich (who lived extended lives).
The benefits of an unextended life
The majority of films presented an unextended life as preferable to an extended one. Several films asserted that life is about risk (In Time) and change (Interview with the Vampire, Tuck Everlasting), and that a life without these things is not really a life. The most detailed example of this theme came from the immortal Jesse Tuck's attempts to talk the mortal Winnie out of extending her life.
Look around you. It's teaming with life, with flowers and trees and frogs. It's all part of the wheel, it's always changing, it's always growing. Like you Winnie, your life is never the same. You were once a child, now you are about to become a woman. Some day you'll grow up, you'll do something important, you'll have children maybe, and then one day you'll go out, just like the flame of a candle. You'll make way for new life.…What we Tucks have you can't call it living. We just
Several movies presented death as a necessity in life that should not be feared but welcomed.
Winnie: I don't want to die. Is that wrong?
Tuck: No. No human does, but it's part of the wheel, the same as being born. You can't have living without dying. Don't be afraid of death Winnie, be afraid of the unlived life
(Tuck Everlasting).
One should focus on the quality not quantity of life, and should accept dying with grace.
It seems to me that we struggle all our lives to become whole, complete enough when we die to achieve a measure of grace. Few of us ever do. Most of us end up going out the way we came in, kicking and screaming (The Fountain).
The Fountain suggested that the pursuit of immortality “leads you towards vanity, (and) away from the spirit,” and implied that an acceptance of mortality will bring peace and happiness to your life. Throughout the movie, researcher Tom Creo (Hugh Jackman) is very serious and driven in his pursuit of life extension. It is not until the end of the movie when he accepted that he will die, and realized that through death he will live forever with his partner, that he is finally content and sheds tears of joy. The implication seems to be that attempts to extend life are an immature kicking and screaming against death, rather than the recommended mature and graceful acceptance of mortality.
With death presented as a necessary part of life that adds value, and the acceptance of death presented as bringing true joy, it is hardly surprising that mortality is depicted as more valuable than immortality. For instance, in Zardoz, one of the immortals told the only mortal in their midst, Zed (Sean Connery), that he is “mentally and physically vastly superior” to the immortals (Zardoz). In the end of the movie Zed “liberates” the immortals from immortality with some of them choosing to die immediately, while others choose to live a life of love and reproduction before death.
However, the most explicit example of the value of mortality is provided by Highlander. In Highlander, an immortal may die if his head is removed from his body. The immortals spend their lives fighting and attempting to kill other immortals as “there can be only one.” They felt compelled to battle for “the prize” that comes with being the last remaining immortal without knowing what the prize actually is. In the end, Connor MacLeod (Christopher Lambert) killed the only other remaining immortal and found that the prize was mortality. Although MacLeod was surprised by the prize, he welcomed his mortality and reveled in the prospect of loving, reproducing, aging, and dying. Indeed, it was one of only two times he appears to be truly happy in the entire film (the only other occasion being before he knew he was immortal).
Because immortality was recognized as a common desire, and life extension was presented in a negative light, the films presented alternative means to achieve immortality. The most detailed example of this was provided by the eulogy of Ernest (Bruce Willis) who chose mortality (see above):
We are gathered here today to honour the passing of a man of courage and of vision. Dr Ernest Menville always felt that life begins at 50.…A brilliant academic as well as a rugged outdoorsman, Dr. Menville pursued with vigour a variety of pursuits, not just to attain some personal ambition, but to enhance the world for us, and make it a better place then he found it. Oh and that he did.…This man has, in his own way, learned the secret of eternal life, and it's here among us in the hearts of his friends, and the secret of eternal youth right here in the lives of his children and his grandchildren, and it is my opinion that our beloved Ernest is one man that will indeed live forever (Death Becomes Her).
This glowing description was contrasted with the vanity and selfishness of the other characters that chose an extended life. Achieving immortality through works and children was presented as a much more appropriate and acceptable method than the selfish pursuit of life extension.
However, once again there was an exception to the general trends found in this analysis. Cocoon and its sequel presented an extended life and an unextended life as equally valid options, and there was no apparent judgment of the individuals who made different choices.
Why the exception?
Throughout this analysis, Cocoon and its sequel have consistently provided a contrast to the dominant depictions of life extension. In these movies, an extended life was one full of play and childlike fun, sexuality, children, and lasting love. Those that chose life extension appeared as rational, healthy, and happy individuals as did those who did not. Why do these films stand in such contrast to the remainder of the sample? Perhaps it is because these films feature characters who are much older than the characters featured in other life extension films. Is life extension a more valid option once one is nearing the end of the natural life span? Attempts to investigate this were limited by the fact that there were very few depictions of life extension among older individuals identified. In fact, only one other depiction of life extension in an older individual (Golden Years) was identified. Unfortunately life extension was not presented as a choice in this depiction, and little was said about the experience of an extended life (because the main character was too busy attempting to escape from the government), so the idea that life extension may be age-appropriate could not be investigated further.
Discussion
The dominant messages contained in these films appear to be that: • Human life extension would be groundbreaking, but the pursuit is dangerous. • Life extension research is secretly pursued, for selfish reasons, by arrogant, irrational, reckless, and unregulated scientists. • Life extension is unnatural, blasphemous, and unholy. • The choice to extend one's life should be an informed, individual decision. • Those who desire life extension are selfish, vain, fearful, irrational, and even crazy. • Those who reject life extension are normal, calm, rational, and mentally healthy, not to mention brave and altruistic. • Life extension may have some benefits, but these will be outweighed by the negatives, such as loneliness, boredom, stagnation, and a longing to die. • An extended life is often one without lasting love or children. • Life extension technologies will create or exacerbate social divides, be unequally (and unfairly) distributed, and result in those with extended lives being supported by those whose lives have not been extended. • Mortality is preferable to immortality. Immortality should only be attempted through works and children.
These films appeared to draw on myth, religious texts, and historical literature. As in the Epic of Gilgamesh, arguably the oldest known work of literature, immortality should be achieved through lasting works of culture and civilization, not pursued at the physical level. Life extension comes with hidden dangers, as in the myth of Tithonus, who is granted immortality but not eternal youth. The extension of human life would involve a literal or proverbial deal with the devil, a Faustian bargain that results in short-term gain for long-term pain. Extended lives are a curse (the Wandering Jew and Sisyphus). The only individuals who would choose life extension, and ignore the biblical limit of life, are bound to be evil; they are those damned to suffer in the afterlife. 13 Sexuality is linked to mortality (Genesis 3:7), so immortality means exchanging procreation for creation. 14
There is a cultural bias against life extension that extends back many centuries. From our earliest stories to modern science fiction, immortality comes at a terrible cost of alienation, ennui, stagnation, 13 and childlessness 11 and is best as a hope and never a reality. 14 This bias is even apparent in children's stories. For example, Lundquist 15 found that the immortals in Peter Pan and Hitty, Her First Hundred Years were insufferably vain and isolated. The films analyzed in this paper are just one way that cautionary tales about life extension are expressed and absorbed into conventional wisdom.
To what extent do these films reflect community attitudes? They do not appear to be an accurate reflection of levels of community interest. My own qualitative research in this area demonstrated that over half (56%) of a targeted sample of Australians (including those expected to be pro- and anti-life extension) would consider using a life extension technology should one become available. 8 Quantitative research amongst older (60–99 years) Americans demonstrated that about one-fourth of the sample held attitudes that were positive to some degree toward living beyond the current maximum, and about one-fifth held attitudes that were positive to some degree toward living forever. 16
However, the films are an accurate reflection of community attitudes in that they convey concerns expressed by community members. For example, studies of community attitudes have found concerns that an extended life would be boring and repetitive, that long-term relationships would suffer, 17 that it would mean the extension of chronic illness, that life extension was unnatural and playing God, and that such a technology would be unequally distributed. 18
It seems that the cautionary tales that dominate literature and film are not enough to deter some community members from the prospect of life extension. However, it seems that others will need some reassurances. Therefore, I have compiled a list of six recommendations addressing the community concerns found by this and other research (see Table 4).
Biogerontologists may dismiss these recommendations as beyond their concerns as scientists, or as unimportant because they foresee adequate demand for future life extension technologies. However, public approval will not just determine the future demand for life extension, it may also determine the course of life extension research. At this point in time, the biogerontological community has contributed little to public understandings of life extension. This must change if the public is to support life extension research.
Conclusion
The majority of the 19 films analyzed were cautionary tales in keeping with the long history of cultural bias against life extension in the West. Research suggests that these popular conceptualizations may have a strong influence on community attitudes to life extension because most individuals have little or no knowledge of biogerontological research. The biogerontological community has frequently been dismissive of community concerns, yet a failure to address these concerns has the potential to negatively impact the research trajectory and the entry and reception of new life extension technologies. It is time for biogerontologists to make their presence felt in community discussions so that community members do not have to rely solely on fictional accounts for their understandings of life extension.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Wayne Hall for his comments on this article and the community members who inspired this research.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.