This review shows how the relationship between nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and businesses has been examined in business and society, management, and international business (IB) literatures. Altogether 88 relevant studies have been identified through the analysis of article abstracts from 11 leading journals in these fields. The articles have been classified into three categories according to their focus: NGO—business interface, NGO—business— government interface, and NGOs as one of many corporate stakeholders. Six main themes are identified: (a) Activism and NGO influence, (b) dyadic partnership (NGO—business), (c) cross-sector partnership (NGO—business— government), (d) global governance and standardization, (e) national-level governance, and (f) stakeholder management. The state of the research topic is assessed, and implications and avenues for further research are provided.
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2.
Ählström, J., & Sjöström, E. (2005). CSOs and business partnerships: Strategies for interaction. Business Strategy and the Environment , 14, 230-240.
3.
Albareda, L., Lozano, J.M., & Ysa, T. ( 2007). Public policies on corporate social responsibility: The role of governments in Europe. Journal of Business Ethics , 74, 391-408.
4.
Antal, A.B., & Sobczak, A. ( 2007). Corporate social responsibility in France: A mix of national traditions and international influences. Business & Society , 46, 9-33.
5.
Argenti, P.A. ( 2004). Collaborating with activists: How Starbucks works with NGOs. California Management Review, 47(1), 91-116.
6.
Arya, B., & Salk, J.E. ( 2006). Cross-sector alliance learning and effectiveness of voluntary codes of corporate social responsibility. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16, 211-234.
7.
Austin, J.E. ( 2000). The collaboration challenge: How nonprofits and businesses succeed through strategic alliances. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
8.
Bendell, J. ( 2000). Terms for endearment: Business, NGOs and sustainable development. Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf .
9.
Benner, M.J., & Tushman, M. ( 2002). Process management and technological innovation: A longitudinal study of the photography and paint industries. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 676-706.
10.
Beschorner, T., & Müller, M. (2007). Social standards: Toward an active ethical involvement of businesses in developing countries. Journal of Business Ethics, 73, 11-21.
11.
Blockson, L.C. ( 2003). Multisector approaches to societal issues management . Business & Society, 42, 381-390.
12.
Boddewyn, J.J. ( 2003). Understanding and advancing the concept of "nonmarket ." Business & Society, 42, 297-327.
13.
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14.
Boli, J., & Thomas, G.M. ( 1997). World culture in the world polity: A century of international non-governmental organizations. American Sociological Review , 62, 171-190.
15.
Bonardi, J.-P., Holburn, G., & Van DenBergh, R.G. (2006). Nonmarket strategy performance: Evidence from U.S. electric utilities. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 1209-1228.
16.
Bonardi, J.-P., & Keim, G.D. ( 2005). Corporate political strategies for widely salient issues . Academy of Management Review, 30, 555-576.
17.
Brower, H.H., & Shrader, C.B. ( 2000). Moral reasoning and ethical climate: Not-for-profit vs. for-profit boards of directors. Journal of Business Ethics , 26, 147-167.
18.
Butterfield, K.D., Reed, R., & Lemak, D.J. ( 2004). An inductive model of collaboration from the stakeholder’s perspective. Business & Society, 43, 162-196.
19.
Campbell, J.L. ( 2007). Why would corporations behave in socially responsible ways? An institutional theory of corporate social responsibility. Academy of Management Review, 32, 946-967.
20.
Campbell, T. ( 2006). A human rights approach to developing voluntary codes of conduct for multinational corporations. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16, 255-269.
21.
Christmann, P., & Taylor, G. ( 2002). Globalization and the environment: Strategies for international voluntary environmental initiatives. Academy of Management Executive, 16, 121-135.
22.
Christmann, P., & Taylor, G. ( 2006). Firm self-regulation through international certifiable standards: Determinants of symbolic versus substantive implementation. Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 863-878.
23.
Clarke, S., & Roome, N. ( 1999). Sustainable business: Learning-action networks as organizational assets. Business Strategy and the Environment, 8, 296-310.
24.
Cordano, M., Hanson Frieze, I., & Ellis, K.M. ( 2004). Entangled affiliations and attitudes: An analysis of the influences on environmental policy stakeholders’ behavioral intentions . Journal of Business Ethics, 49, 27-40.
25.
Dando, N., & Swift, T. ( 2003). Transparency and assurance: Minding the credibility gap . Journal of Business Ethics, 44, 195-200.
26.
Darnall, N. ( 2006). Why firms mandate ISO 14001 certification. Business & Society, 45, 354-382.
27.
David, P., Bloom, M., & Hillman, A.J. ( 2007). Investor activism, managerial responsiveness, and corporate social performance. Strategic Management Journal, 28, 91-100.
28.
Davies, I.A., & Crane, A. ( 2003). Ethical decision making in fair trade companies. Journal of Business Ethics, 45, 79-92.
29.
Dawkins, C.E. ( 2005). First to market: Issue management pacesetters and the pharmaceutical industry response to AIDS in Africa. Business & Society, 44, 244-283.
30.
De Bakker, F.G.A., Groenewegen, P., & den Hond, F. ( 2005). A bibliometric analysis of 30 years of research and theory on corporate social responsibility and corporate social performance. Business & Society, 44, 283-317.
31.
De George, R. ( 2005). Intellectual property and pharmaceutical drugs: An ethical analysis. Business Ethics Quarterly, 15, 549-575.
32.
De la Questa González, M., & Valor Martinez , C. (2004). Fostering corporate social responsibility through public initiative: From the EU to the Spanish case. Journal of Business Ethics, 55, 275-293.
33.
Delmas, M., & Toffel, M.W. ( 2004). Stakeholders and environmental management practices: An institutional framework. Business Strategy and the Environment , 13, 209-222.
34.
Den Hond, F., & De Bakker, F.G.A. (2007). Ideologically motivated activism: How activist groups influence corporate social change activities . Academy of Management Review, 32, 901-924.
35.
Detomasi, D.A. ( 2007). The multinational corporation and global governance: Modelling global public policy networks. Journal of Business Ethics, 71, 321-334.
36.
Doh, J.P. ( 2003). Nongovernmental organizations, corporate strategy, and public policy: NGOs as agents of change. In J. P. Doh & H. Teegen (Eds.), Globalization and NGOs: Transforming business, government, and society (pp. 1-19). Westport, CT: Praeger.
37.
Doh, J.P., & Guay, T. ( 2004). Globalization and corporate social responsibility: How nongovernmental organizations influence labor and environmental codes of conduct . Management International Review, 44, 7-29.
38.
Doh, J.P., & Guay, T. ( 2006). Corporate social responsibility, public policy, and NGO activism in Europe and the United States: An institutional-stakeholder perspective . Journal of Management Studies, 43(1), 47-73.
39.
Doh, J.P., & Teegen, H. ( 2002). Nongovernmental organizations as institutional actors in international business: Theory and implications. International Business Review, 11, 665-684.
40.
Doh, J. P., & Teegen, H. (Eds.). (2003). Globalization and NGOs: Transforming business, government, and society. Westport, CT: Praeger.
41.
Dunfee, T.W., & Hess, D. ( 2000). The legitimacy of direct corporate humanitarian investment . Business Ethics Quarterly, 10, 95-109.
Egels-Zandén, N., & Hyllman, P. ( 2006). Exploring the effects of union-NGO relationships on corporate responsibility: The case of the Swedish clean clothes campaign. Journal of Business Ethics, 64, 303-316.
44.
Egels-Zandén, N., & Hyllman, P. ( 2007). Evaluating strategies for negotiating workers’ rights in transnational corporations: The effects of codes of conduct and global agreements on workplace democracy. Journal of Business Ethics, 76, 207-223.
45.
Egels-Zandén, N., & Wahlqvist, E. ( 2007). Post-partnership strategies for defining corporate responsibility: The business social compliance initiative. Journal of Business Ethics, 70, 175-190.
46.
Egri, C.P., & Herman, S. ( 2000). Leadership in the North American environmental sector: Values, leadership styles, and contexts of environmental leaders and their organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 571-605.
47.
Egri, C.P., & Ralston, D.A. ( 2008). Corporate responsibility: A review of international management research from 1998 to 2007. Journal of International Management , 14, 319-339.
48.
Frooman, J. ( 1999). Stakeholder influence strategies. Academy of Management Review, 24, 191-205.
49.
Frooman, J., & Murrell, A.J. ( 2005). Stakeholder influence strategies: The roles of structural and demographic determinants. Business & Society, 44, 3-32.
50.
Galaskiewicz, J., Bielefeld, W., & Dowell, M. ( 2006). Networks and organizational growth: A study of community based nonprofits. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51, 337-380.
51.
Gilbert, D.U., & Rasche, A. ( 2007). Discourse ethics and social accountability: The ethics of SA8000. Business Ethics Quarterly, 2, 187-216.
52.
Graafland, J.J., Eijffinger, S.C.W., & SmidJohan, H. ( 2004). Benchmarking of corporate social responsibility: Methodological problems and robustness. Journal of Business Ethics, 53, 137-152.
53.
Griesse, M.A. ( 2007a). Caterpillar’s interactions with Piracicaba, Brazil: A community-based analysis of CSR. Journal of Business Ethics , 73, 39-52.
54.
Griesse, M.A. ( 2007b). The geographic, political, and economic context for corporate social responsibility in Brazil. Journal of Business Ethics, 73, 21-37.
55.
Grolin, J. ( 1998). Corporate legitimacy in risk society: The case of Brent Spar. Business Strategy and the Environment, 7, 213-222.
56.
Guay, T., Doh, J.P., & Sinclair, G. ( 2004). Non-governmental organizations, shareholder activism, and socially responsible investments: Ethical, strategic, and governance implications . Journal of Business Ethics, 52, 125-139.
57.
Guler, I., Guillén, M.F., & Macpherson, J.M. (2002). Global competition, institutions, and the diffusion of organizational practices: The international spread of ISO 9000 quality certificates. Administrative Science Quarterly , 47, 207-232.
58.
Gunningham, N., Phillipson, M., & Grabosky, P. ( 1999). Harnessing third parties as surrogate regulators: Achieving environmental outcomes by alternative means. Business Strategy and the Environment, 8, 211-224.
59.
Hardy, C., & Phillips, N. ( 1998) Strategies of engagement: Lessons from the critical examination of collaboration and conflict in an interorganizational domain. Organization Science, 9, 217-230.
60.
Hartman, C.L., Hofman, P.S., & Stafford, E.R. (1999). Partnerships: A path to sustainability. Business Strategy and the Environment, 8, 255-266.
61.
Harvey, B., & Schaefer, A. ( 2001). Managing relationships with environmental stakeholders: A study of U.K. water and electricity utilities. Journal of Business Ethics, 30, 243-260.
62.
Hendry, J. ( 2003). Environmental NGOs and business. Business & Society, 42, 267-276.
63.
Hendry, J. ( 2005). Stakeholder influence strategies: An empirical exploration . Journal of Business Ethics, 61, 79-99.
64.
Hendry, J. ( 2006). Taking aim at business: What factors lead environmental non-governmental organizations to target particular firms? Business & Society, 45, 47-87.
65.
Heugens, P.P.M.A.R. ( 2003). Capability building through adversarial relationships: A replication and extension of Clarke and Roome (1999). Business Strategy and the Environment, 12, 300-312.
66.
Heugens, P.P.M.A.R., van den Bosch, F.A.J., & van Riel, C.B.M. (2002). Stakeholder integration: Building mutually enforcing relationships. Business & Society, 41, 37-61.
67.
Hira, A., & Ferrie, J. ( 2006): Fair trade: Three key challenges for reaching the mainstream . Journal of Business Ethics, 63, 107-118.
68.
Humphreys, D. ( 2004). Redefining the issues: NGO influence on international forest negotiations. Global Environmental Politics, 4(2), 51-74.
69.
Huxham, C., & Vangen, S. ( 2000). Leadership in the shaping and implementation of collaboration agendas: How things happen in a (not quite) joined-up world. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 1159-1176.
70.
Kaler, J. ( 2000). Reasons to be ethical: Self-interest and ethical business . Journal of Business Ethics, 27, 161-173.
71.
Kassinis, G., & Vafeas, N. ( 2006). Stakeholder pressures and environmental performance. Academy of Management Journal, 49, 145-159.
72.
King, A. ( 2007). Cooperation between corporations and environmental groups: A transaction cost perspective. Academy of Management Review , 32, 889-900.
73.
King, A.A., Lenox, M.J., & Terlaak, A. ( 2005). The strategic use of decentralized institutions: Exploring certification with the ISO 14001 management standard. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 1091-1106.
74.
King, B.G., & Soule, S.A. ( 2007). Social movements as extra-institutional entrepreneurs: The effect of protests on stock price returns. Administrative Science Quarterly, 52, 413-442.
75.
Knox, S., & Gruar, C. ( 2007). The application of stakeholder theory to relationship marketing strategy development in a non-profit organization. Journal of Business Ethics, 75, 115-135.
76.
Kolk, A., & van Tulder, R. (2002). Child labor and multinational conduct: A comparison of international business and stakeholder codes. Journal of Business Ethics, 36, 291-301.
77.
Kong, N., Salzmann, O., Steger, U., & Ionescu-Somers, A. (2002). Moving business/industry towards sustainable consumption: The role of NGOs. European Management Journal, 20, 109-127.
78.
LaFrance, J., & Lehmann, M. ( 2005). Corporate awakening-Why (some) corporations embrace public-private partnerships. Business Strategy and the Environment, 14, 216-229.
79.
Lawrence, T.B., Hardy, C., & Phillips, N. ( 2002). Institutional effects of interorganizational collaboration: The emergence of proto-institutions. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 281-290.
80.
Levendis, J., Block, W., & Morrel, J. ( 2006). Nuclear power. Journal of Business Ethics , 67, 37-49.
81.
Lockett, A., Moon, J., & Visser, W. ( 2006). Corporate social responsibility in management research: Focus, nature, salience and sources of influence. Journal of Management Studies, 43(1), 115-136.
82.
Loza, J. ( 2004). Business-community partnerships: The case for community organization capacity building. Journal of Business Ethics , 53, 297-311.
83.
Lozano, J.M., Albareda, L., & Balaguer, M.R. (2006). Socially responsible investment in the Spanish financial market. Journal of Business Ethics , 69, 305-316.
84.
MacDonald, C., McDonald, M., & Norman, W. ( 2002). Charitable conflicts of interest. Journal of Business Ethics, 39, 67-74.
85.
MacDonald, C., & Whellams, M. ( 2007). Corporate decisions about labelling genetically modified foods. Journal of Business Ethics, 75, 181-190.
86.
MacDonald, S., & Chrisp, T. ( 2005). Acknowledging the purpose of partnership. Journal of Business Ethics, 59, 307-317.
87.
Madsen, H., & Ulhøi, J.P. (2001). Integrating environmental and stakeholder management. Business Strategy and the Environment , 10, 77-88.
88.
Majchrzak, A., Jarvenpaa, S.L., & Hollingshead, A.B. (2007). Coordinating expertise among emergent groups responding to disasters. Organization Science, 18, 147-161.
89.
Margolis, J.D., & Walsh, J.P. ( 2003). Misery loves companies: Rethinking social initiatives by business. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48, 268-305.
90.
Marquis, C., Glynn, M.A., & Davis, G.F. ( 2007). Community isomorphism and corporate social action. Academy of Management Review, 32, 925-945.
91.
Matten, D., & Crane, A. ( 2005). Corporate citizenship: Toward an extended theoretical conceptualization. Academy of Management Review, 30, 166-179.
92.
Maynard, M.L. ( 2001). Policing transnational commerce: Global awareness in the margins of morality. Journal of Business Ethics, 30, 17-27.
93.
Millar, C.C.J.M., Choi, C.J., & Chen, S. ( 2004). Global strategic partnerships between MNEs and NGOs: Drivers of change and ethical issues. Business and Society Review, 109, 395-414.
94.
Mitchell, R.K., Agle, B.R., & Wood, D.J. ( 1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22, 853-886.
95.
Moore, G. ( 2004). The fair trade movement: Parameters, issues and future research. Journal of Business Ethics, 53, 73-86.
96.
Nwankwo, E., Philips, N., & Tracey, P. ( 2007). Social investment through community enterprise: The case of multinational corporations’ involvement in the development of Nigerian water resources. Journal of Business Ethics, 73, 91-102.
97.
O’Higgins, E.R.E. ( 2006). Corruption, under-development and extractive resource industry: Addressing the vicious cycle. Business Ethics Quarterly , 16, 235-254.
98.
Osterman, P. ( 2006). Overcoming oligarchy: Culture and agency in social movement organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51, 622-649.
99.
Palazzo, G., & Richter, U. ( 2005). CSR business as usual? The case of the tobacco industry . Journal of Business Ethics, 61, 387-401.
100.
Palazzo, G., & Scherer, A.G. ( 2006). Corporate legitimacy as deliberation: A communicative framework. Journal of Business Ethics, 66, 71-88.
101.
Pines, G.L.S., & Meyer, D.G. ( 2005). Stopping the exploitation of workers: An analysis of the effective application of consumer or socio-political pressure. Journal of Business Ethics, 59, 155-162.
102.
Powell, W. W., & Steinberg, R. (Eds.). (2006). The non-profit sector-A research handbook (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
103.
Rao, H., & Sivakumar, K. ( 1999). Institutional sources of boundary-spanning structures: The establishment of investor relations departments in the Fortune 500 industrials . Organization Science, 10, 27-43.
104.
Rasche, A., & Esser, D.E. ( 2006): From stakeholder management to stakeholder accountability: Applying Habermasian discourse ethics to accountability research. Journal of Business Ethics, 65, 251-267.
105.
Raufflet, E., & Gurguel do Amaral, C. (2007). Bridging business and society: The Abrinq foundation in Brazil. Journal of Business Ethics, 73, 119-129.
106.
Regéczi, D. ( 2005). Limited partnership: The lack of sustainable development in relation to participation in Hungarian public-private partnerships. Business Strategy and the Environment, 14, 205-215.
107.
Rehbein, K., Waddock, S., & Graves, S.B. ( 2004). Understanding shareholder activism: Which corporations are targeted? Business & Society, 43, 239-268.
108.
Rondinelli, D., & London, T. ( 2003). How corporations and environmental groups collaborate: Assessing cross-sector collaborations and alliances. Academy of Management Executive, 17, 61-76.
109.
Rosthorn, J. ( 2000). Business ethics auditing-More than a stakeholder’s toy. Journal of Business Ethics, 27, 9-19.
110.
Rowley, T.J., & Moldoveanu, M. (2003). When will stakeholder groups act? An interest- and identity-based model of stakeholder group mobilization . Academy of Management Review, 28, 204-219.
111.
Schepers, D. ( 2006). The impact of NGO network conflict on the corporate social responsibility strategies of multinational corporations. Business & Society, 45, 282-300.
112.
Scherer, A.G., & Smid, M. ( 2000). The downward spiral and the U.S. model business principles-Why MNEs should take responsibility for the improvement of world-wide social and environmental conditions. Management International Review , 40, 351-372.
113.
Schwartz, M.S., & Weber, J. ( 2006). A Business Ethics National Index (BENI): Measuring business ethics activity around the world. Business & Society, 45, 382-406.
114.
Seifert, B., Morris, S.A., & Bartkus, B.R. ( 2004). Having, giving, and getting: Slack resources, corporate philanthropy, and firm financial performance. Business & Society, 43, 135-162.
115.
Seitanidi, M., & Crane, A. ( 2009). Implementing CSR through partnerships: Understanding the selection, design and institutionalization of nonprofit-business partnerships . Journal of Business Ethics, 85, 413-429.
116.
Sharma, S., & Henriques, I. ( 2005). Stakeholder influences on sustainability practices in the Canadian forest products industry. Strategic Management Journal, 26, 159-181.
117.
Singer, A.E. ( 2006). Business strategy and poverty alleviation. Journal of Business Ethics, 66, 225-231.
118.
Spar, D.L., & La Mure, L.T. ( 2003). The power of activism: Assessing the impact of NGOs on global business. California Management Review, 45, 78-101.
119.
Stafford, E.R., Polonsky, M.J., & Hartman, C.L. ( 2000). Environmental NGO-business collaboration and strategic bridging: A case analysis of the Greenpeace-Foron Alliance. Business Strategy and the Environment, 9, 122-135.
120.
Starik, M., & Heuer, M. ( 2002). Strategic inter-organizational environmentalism in the U.S.: A multi-sectoral perspective of alternating eco-policy roles. Business Strategy and the Environment, 11, 221-235.
121.
Strannegård, L. ( 2000). Flexible couplings: Combining business goals and environmental concern. Business Strategy and the Environment, 9, 163-174.
122.
Sullivan, R. ( 2005). Code integration: Alignment or conflict? Journal of Business Ethics, 59, 9-25.
123.
Teegen, H. ( 2003). International NGOs as global institutions: Using social capital to impact multinational enterprises and governments. Journal of International Management, 9, 271-285.
124.
Teegen, H., Doh, J.P., & Vachani, S. ( 2004). The importance of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in global governance and value creation: An international business research agenda. Journal of International Business Studies, 35, 463-483.
125.
Terlaak, A. ( 2007). Order without law? The role of certified management standards in shaping socially desired firm behaviors. Academy of Management Review, 32, 968-985.
126.
Tracey, P., Phillips, N., & Haugh, H. ( 2005). Beyond philanthropy: Community enterprise as a basis for corporate citizenship. Journal of Business Ethics, 58, 327-344.
127.
Valor Martínez, C. ( 2003). Social alliance for fundraising: How Spanish nonprofits are hedging the risks. Journal of Business Ethics, 47, 209-222.
128.
Van den Bosch, F.A.J., & van Riel, C.B.M. (1998). Buffering and bridging as environmental strategies of firms. Business Strategy and the Environment, 17, 24-31.
129.
Van Luijk, H.J.L. ( 2000). In search of instruments: Business and ethics halfway . Journal of Business Ethics, 27, 3-8.
130.
Van Oosterhout, J. ( 2006). Authority and democracy in corporate governance? Journal of Business Ethics, 71, 359-370.
131.
Waygood, S., & Wehrmeyer, W. ( 2003). A critical assessment of how non-governmental organizations use the capital markets to achieve their aims: A U.K. study. Business Strategy and the Environment, 12, 372-385.
132.
Weber, J., & Getz, K. ( 2004). Buy brides or bye-bye bribes: The future status of bribery in international commerce. Business Ethics Quarterly, 14, 695-711.
133.
Windsor, D. ( 2004). The development of international business norms. Business Ethics Quarterly, 14, 729-754.
134.
Zyglidopoulos, S.C. ( 2002). The social and environmental responsibilities of multinationals: Evidence from the Brent Spar case. Journal of Business Ethics , 36, 141-151.
