Unpacking the Link Between Top Manager Gender and Firm Involvement in Bribery

Abstract

Why do some firms engage in bribery while others do not? We unpack how top manager gender shapes firm involvement in bribery by examining the roles of bribe demand, firm location, and investment in security. Based on a sample of 57,758 firms from 94 countries, we find that having a female top manager is negatively associated with a firm’s likelihood of engaging in bribery, and that bribe demand mediates this relationship. Moreover, we find that the location of the firm moderates the relationship between top manager gender and a firm’s likelihood of receiving a bribe demand. Interestingly, the findings also show that investment in security positively moderates the relationship between having a female top manager and a firm’s likelihood of receiving a bribe demand. Our findings contribute to the business ethics literature, particularly on bribery, and offer relevant managerial and policy implications.

Keywords

bribe demand bribery firm location investment in security top manager gender

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agerberg

(2014). Perspectives on gender and corruption: Gender differences in regard to corruption in Europe from an individual and institutional perspective (Working Paper Series 14). The Quality of Government Institute.

Alhassan-Alolo

(2007). Gender and corruption: Testing the new consensus. Public Administration and Development: The International Journal of Management Research and Practice, 27(3), 227–237.

Altonji

J. G.

Elder

T. E.

Taber

C. R.

(2005). Selection on observed and unobserved variables: Assessing the effectiveness of Catholic schools. Journal of Political Economy, 113(1), 151–184.

Anglin

A. H.

Wolfe

M. T.

Short

J. C.

McKenny

A. F.

Pidduck

R. J.

(2018). Narcissistic rhetoric and crowdfunding performance: A social role theory perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 33, 780–812.

Angrist

J. D.

Pischke

J. S.

(2008). Mostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist’s companion. Princeton University Press.

Asomah

J. Y.

Dim

E. E.

Cheng

(2023). Are women less corrupt than men? Evidence from Ghana. Crime, Law and Social Change, 79(1), 43–61.

Assenova

Sorenson

(2017). Legitimacy and the benefits of firm formalization. Organization Science, 28(5), 804–818.

Audretsch

D. B.

Belitski

Chowdhury

Desai

(2022). CEO gender, institutional context and firm exports. International Business Review, 31(5), Article 102008.

Belsley

D. A.

Kuh

Welsch

R. E.

(2005). Regression diagnostics: Identifying influential data and sources of collinearity. John Wiley & Sons.

10.

Bhatnagar

Papatla

(2019). Do habits influence the types of information that smartphone shoppers seek? Journal of Business Research, 94, 89–98.

11.

Birhanu

A. G.

Gambardella

Valentini

(2016). Bribery and investment: Firm-level evidence from Africa and Latin America. Strategic Management Journal, 37(9), 1865–1877.

12.

Breen

Gillanders

McNulty

Suzuki

(2017). Gender and corruption in business. The Journal of Development Studies, 53(9), 1486–1501.

13.

Buis

M. L.

(2010). Direct and indirect effects in a logit model. The Stata Journal, 10(1), 11–29.

14.

Burnham

T. A.

Jeon

H. J.

Zeng

(2018). Illegal corporate bribery: The pressure to “make do” and achieve goals. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 26(3), 246–259.

15.

Carli

L. L.

Eagly

A. H.

(2016). Women face a labyrinth: An examination of metaphors for women leaders. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 31, 514–527.

16.

Castro

Phillips

Ansari

(2020). Corporate corruption: A review and an agenda for future research. Academy of Management Annals, 14(2), 935–968.

17.

Chowdhury

Desai

Audretsch

(2018). Corruption, entrepreneurship, and social welfare—A global perspective (Springer briefs in innovation and entrepreneurship). Springer.

18.

Collins

J. D.

Uhlenbruck

Rodriguez

(2009). Why firms engage in corruption: A top management perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 87, 89–108.

19.

Cresswell

(2010). Oxford dictionary of word origins. Oxford University Press.

20.

De Cabo

R. M.

Gimeno

Nieto

M. J

. (2012). Gender diversity on European banks’ boards of directors. Journal of Business Ethics, 109(2), 145–162.

21.

de Jong

P. A.

van Ees

. (2012). Which entrepreneurs bribe and what do they get from it? Exploratory evidence from Vietnam. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36, 323–345.

22.

de Jong

P. A.

van Ees

. (2015). The impact of personal relationships on bribery incidence in transition economies. European Management Review, 12(1), 7–21.

23.

Diviák

Coutinho

J. A.

Stivala

A. D.

(2020). A man’s world? Comparing the structural positions of men and women in an organized criminal network. Crime, Law and Social Change, 74(5), 547–569.

24.

Dollar

Fisman

Gatti

(2001). Are women really the “fairer” sex? Corruption and women in government. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 46, 423–429.

25.

Dutta

Kar

Beladi

(2022). Innovation and perceived corruption: A firm-level analysis for India. Business and Politics, 24(2), 151–170.

26.

Eagly

A. H.

(1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Lawrence Erlbaum.

27.

Eagly

H. A.

Wood

(2012). Social role theory. In Van Lange

P. A.

Kruglanski

A. W.

Higgins

E. T.

(Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 458–476). SAGE Publications Ltd.

28.

Eagly

A. H.

Wood

(2016). Social role theory of sex differences. In Naples

Hoogland

R. C.

Wickramasinghe

Wong

W. C. A.

(Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of gender and sexuality studies (pp. 1–3). Wiley.

29.

Eagly

A. H.

Wood

Diekman

A. B.

(2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In Eckes

Trautner

H. M.

(Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123–174). Psychology Press.

30.

Eddleston

K. A.

Banalieva

E. R.

Verbeke

(2020). The bribery paradox in transition economies and the enactment of “new normal” business environments. Journal of Management Studies, 57(3), 597–625.

31.

Esarey

Chirillo

(2013). “Fairer sex” or purity myth? Corruption, gender, and institutional context. Politics & Gender, 9, 361–389.

32.

Fang

(2024). Measurements, determinants, causes, and consequences of corruption: lessons from China’s anti-corruption campaign. International Tax and Public Finance, 31(1), 3–25.

33.

Francisco

Pontara

(2007). Does Corruption impact on firms’ ability to conduct business in Mauritania? Evidence from Investment Climate Survey Data (Policy Research Working Paper 4439). The World Bank.

34.

Freund

Hallward-Driemeier

Rijkers

(2016). Deals and delays: Firm-level evidence on corruption and policy implementation times. The World Bank Economic Review, 30(2), 354–382.

35.

Fung

(2014). The rise of women in China and the one child policy. TCNJ Journal of Student Scholarship, 16(1), 1–6.

36.

Gaganis

Pasiouras

Roubaud

Hollebeek

L. D.

(2025). Family firms and bribe payments in developing countries: The moderating role of social capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 202, 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-025-05950-w

37.

Gauthier

Goyette

Kouamé

W. A.

(2021). Why do firms pay bribes? Evidence on the demand and supply sides of corruption in developing countries. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 190, 463–479.

38.

Goel

R. K.

Mazhar

Sayan

(2021). Strategic location of firms: Does it empower bribe givers or bribe takers? Economic Systems, 45(3), Article 100873.

39.

Goetz

A. M.

(2007). Political cleaners: Women as the new anti-corruption force? Development and Change 38, 87–105.

40.

Goktan

A. B.

Yim

H. R.

Gupta

V. K.

(2015). Gender, gender role identity and values among Korean men and women: Implications for leadership. Journal of Leadership and Management, 1(3), 381–399.

41.

Gorsira

Denkers

Huisman

(2018). Both sides of the coin: Motives for corruption among public officials and business employees. Journal of Business Ethics, 151, 179–194.

42.

Hanousek

Shamshur

Tresl

(2019). Firm efficiency, foreign ownership and CEO gender in corrupt environments. Journal of Corporate Finance, 59, 344–360.

43.

Hunt

Laszlo

(2005). Bribery: Who pays, who refuses, what are the payoffs? (National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 11635). http://www.nber.org/papers/w11635

44.

Imai

Keele

Tingley

(2010). A general approach to causal mediation analysis. Psychological Methods, 15(4), 309–334.

45.

Imai

Keele

Tingley

Yamamoto

(2011). Unpacking the black box: Learning about causal mechanisms from experimental and observational studies. American Political Science Review, 105(4), 765–789.

46.

Imai

Keele

Yamamoto

(2010). Identification, inference, and sensitivity analysis for causal mediation effects. Statistical Science, 25(1), 51–71.

47.

Jancsics

(2015). “A friend gave me a phone number”—Brokerage in low-level corruption. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 43(1), 68–87.

48.

Jha

C. K.

Sarangi

(2018). Women and corruption: What positions must they hold to make a difference? Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 151, 219–233.

49.

Jung

H. J.

Lee

S. H.

(2023). The impact of bribery relationships on firm growth in transition economies. Organization Science, 34(1), 303–328.

50.

Kim

Parboteeah

K. P.

Cullen

J. B.

Jeong

(2022). Social institutions approach to women’s firm ownership and firm bribery activity: A study of small-sized firms in emerging markets. Journal of Business Research, 144, 1333–1349.

51.

Liao

Zhang

Wang

(2019). Do female directors influence firms’ environmental innovation? The moderating role of ownership type. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 26, 257–263.

52.

Choi

S. J.

Jiménez

Bayraktar

(2023). Bribery in emerging economies: an integration of institutional and non-market position perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 40(1), 205–242.

53.

Mendoza

Lim

Lopez

(2015). Grease or sand in the wheels of commerce? Firm level evidence on corruption and SMEs. Journal of International Development, 27, 415–439.

54.

Mocan

(2004). What determines corruption? International evidence from micro data (No. w10460). National Bureau of Economic Research.

55.

Mocan

(2008). What determines corruption? International evidence from microdata. Economic Inquiry, 46, 493–510.

56.

Moyo

(2011). Crime and firm characteristics in South Africa. African Security Review, 20(3), 15–32.

57.

Kang

Y. H.

Kim

Y. S.

(2018). The effect of corporate governance on the corruption of firms in BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India & China). Social Sciences, 7(6), 85.

58.

Neumeyer

Santos

Caetano

Kalbfleisch

(2019). Entrepreneurship ecosystems and women entrepreneurs: A social capital and network approach. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 475–489.

59.

Olimov

J. M.

(2024). Bribery, secrecy, and communication: Theory and evidence from firms. arXiv preprint arXiv:2502.10877.

60.

Ramdani

van Witteloostuijn

(2012). The shareholder–manager relationship and its impact on the likelihood of firm bribery. Journal of Business Ethics, 108(4), 495–507.

61.

Romero

(2025). Unpacking bribery: Petty corruption and favor exchanges. Latin American Politics and Society, 67, 36–59.

62.

Rose

(2018). The meaning of corruption: Testing the coherence and adequacy of corruption definitions. Public Integrity, 20(3), 220–233.

63.

Rose

Peiffer

(2015). Paying bribes for public services: A global guide to grass-roots corruption. Springer.

64.

Saha

Sen

(2023). Do economic and political crises lead to corruption? The role of institutions. Economic Modelling, 124, Article 106307.

65.

Schembera

Castro

Lange

Rehbein

Rodrigues

Mattoni

Arora

(2024). Special issue call for papers: Understanding and confronting organizational corruption and wrongdoing in the era of grand societal challenges. Business & Society. https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/pb-assets/PDF/BAS%20Corruption%20CFP%2010-16-2023%20(002)-1697714760.pdf

66.

Schembera

Haack

Scherer

A. G.

(2023). From compliance to progress: A sensemaking perspective on the governance of corruption. Organization Science, 34(3), 1184–1215.

67.

Schneider

M. C.

Bos

A. L.

(2019). The application of social role theory to the study of gender in politics. Political Psychology, 40, 173–213.

68.

Seck

(2020). Heterogeneous bribe payments and firms’ performance in developing countries. Journal of African Business, 21(1), 42–61.

69.

Shepherd

D. A.

Parida

Wincent

(2021). Bribery from a micro, demand-side perspective. Small Business Economics, 57(4), 1661–1680.

70.

Swamy

Knack

Lee

Azfar

(2001). Gender and corruption. Journal of Development Economics, 64, 25–55.

71.

Takacs Haynes

Rašković

. (2021). Living with corruption in Central and Eastern Europe: Social identity and the role of moral disengagement. Journal of Business Ethics, 174(4), 825–845.

72.

Tian

Xia

(2024). Social ties and gift exchanges in a relational society. http://www.tianyuanecon.com/uploads/1/1/0/7/110705287/gift_migration_descriptive.pdf

73.

Tingley

Yamamoto

Hirose

Keele

Imai

(2014). Mediation: R package for causal mediation analysis. Journal of Statistical Software, 59(5), 1–38.

74.

Tran

N. M.

Nguyen

T. T.

Nguyen

T. P. L.

A. T.

Phan

T. T. H.

Nguyen

T. H. T.

N. D.

Phan

A. T.

(2022). Female managers and corruption in SMEs: A comparison between family and nonfamily SMEs in Vietnam. SAGE Open, 12(1), 21582440221082131.

75.

Trentini

Koparanova

(2013). Corruption and entrepreneurship: Does gender matter? (Discussion Paper Series, No. 1). United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.

76.

Tsai

K. H.

Chang

H. C.

Peng

C. Y.

(2016). Refining the linkage between perceived capability and entrepreneurial intention: Roles of perceived opportunity, fear of failure, and gender. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 12(4), 1127–1145.

77.

Tuliao

K. V.

Chen

C. W.

(2017). CEO duality and bribery: the roles of gender and national culture. Management Decision, 55(1), 218–231.

78.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2020). The Time is now—Addressing the gender dimensions of corruption. https://www.unodc.org/documents/corruption/Publications/2020/THE_TIME_IS_NOW_2020_12_08.pdf

79.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2023). Advisory note: Mainstreaming anti-corruption into the sustainable development agenda in the Pacific. https://www.unodc.org/roseap/uploads/documents/pacific/2023/UN-PRAC_Advisory_Note_-_Mainstreaming_AC_into_the_SDG_Agenda_in_the_Pacific.pdf

80.

Uribe

C. A.

(2014). The dark side of social capital re-examined from a policy analysis perspective: Networks of trust and corruption. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 16(2), 175–189.

81.

Van Vu

Tran

T. Q.

Van Nguyen

Lim

(2018). Corruption, types of corruption and firm financial performance: New evidence from a transitional economy. Journal of Business Ethics, 148, 847–858.

82.

Vaznyte

Andries

Demeulemeester

(2020). “Don’t leave me this way!” Drivers of parental hostility and employee spin-offs’ performance. Small Business Economics, 63(3), 1019–1039.

83.

Waldemar

F. S.

(2012). New products and corruption: Evidence from Indian firms. The Developing Economies, 50, 268–284.

84.

Webster

Piesse

(2018). Are foreign-owned firms more likely to pay bribes than domestic ones? Evidence from emerging markets. World Development, 101, 142–161.

85.

Wellalage

N. H.

Fernandez

Thrikawala

(2020). Corruption and innovation in private firms: Does gender matter?. International Review of Financial Analysis, 70, Article 101500.

86.

Wellalage

N. H.

Locke

Samujh

(2019). Corruption, gender and credit constraints: Evidence from South Asian SMEs. Journal of Business Ethics, 159, 267–280.

87.

Wood

Eagly

A. H.

(2010). Gender. In Fiske

Gilbert

Lindzey

(Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 629–667). John Wiley & Sons.

88.

Wood

Eagly

A. H.

(2012). Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 55–123.

89.

Wooldridge

J. M.

(2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. MIT Press.

90.

World Economic Forum. (2018). Corruption is costing the global economy $3.6 trillion dollars every year. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2018/12/the-global-economy-loses-3-6-trillion-to-corruption-each-year-says-u-n/

91.

(2009). Determinants of bribery in Asian firms: Evidence from the World Business Environment Survey. Journal of Business Ethics, 87, 75–88.

92.

Xia

Tan

Bai

(2018). Corruption and technological innovation in private small-medium scale companies: Does female top management play a role? Sustainability, 10(7), Article 2252.

93.

(2021). Essays on interactive economic behaviors (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham).

94.

Yesilirmak

A. C.

Tayfur Ekmekci

Bayhan Karapinar

(2023). Desire to work with woman manager: interplay between sexism and organizational culture. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 38(5), 581–598.

95.

Chen

Meng

Shaheer

(2023). Bribe payments and state ownership: The impact of state ownership on bribery propensity and intensity. Business & Society, 62(5), 1103–1135.

96.

Zaloznaya

Glanville

J. L.

Haylett

(2024). Of deviance and patriarchy: Mechanisms of gender discrimination in public-sector corruption. Criminology, 62(4), 739–768.

97.

Zarghami

S. A.

(2024). The Labyrinth of corruption in the construction industry: A system dynamics model based on 40 years of research. Journal of Business Ethics, 195, 335–352.

98.

Zhou

Han

Wang

(2013). An empirical investigation on firms’ proactive and passive motivation for bribery in China. Journal of Business Ethics, 118, 461–472.