Black Measurement: The Contributions of People Racialized as Black to the Field of Psychometrics

Abstract

Psychometrics is a branch of psychology concerned with the measurement of mental attributes, behavior, and performance, in addition to the design and analysis of tests and other instruments. The origins of this field are rooted in the explorations of 18th century scientists concerned with capturing phenomena in empirical ways. Less discussed is the use of tests and assessments to validate racialization, which thrusts persons racialized as Black into the early discourse on psychometrics. Scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black have long engaged psychometrics providing two major contributions: infrastructure via personnel and training programs built by persons racialized as Black; and interdisciplinarity, which include disciplinary standards and knowledge production. This commentary names these important figures and describes their contributions to the field of psychometrics.

Plain language summary

This commentary names these important Black figures and describes their contributions to the field of psychometrics.

Keywords

psychometrics Black psychologists psychology measurement racism

Psychology, the study of human behavior, is a science that relies on measurement tools to capture mental processes of interest like behaviors, attitudes, knowledge, and other constructs (Bandalos, 2018). Psychometrics is a branch of psychology, but despite its close ties to the field, psychometrics has a more complex definition and path (Borsboom, 2006). The American Psychological Association (APA) defines psychometrics as “the branch of psychology concerned with the quantification and measurement of mental attributes, behavior, performance, and the like, as well as with the design, analysis, and improvement of the tests, questionnaires, and other instruments used in such measurement” (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020a). Relatedly, the field of quantitative psychology is “the study of methods and techniques for the measurement of human attributes, the statistical and mathematical modeling of psychological processes, the design of research studies, and the analysis of psychological data” (APA, 2020b). While similar in content, the difference between psychometrics and quantitative psychology lies with the former’s focus on the design, development, refinement, and analysis of tests and assessments that measure psychological constructs. This focus distinguishes psychometrics from fields that develop and examine study design, research methodologies, and statistical analyses, like quantitative psychology (Anunciação, 2018).

However, to fully describe the field of psychometrics, it is necessary to go beyond its definition to examine its history. This history puts people racialized as Black at the forefront of discourse on measuring human difference (Rushton, 1985). The origins of the field of psychometrics are linked to 20th century scholars like Leon Louis Thurstone and Stanley Smith Stevens who were instrumental in distinguishing psychometrics, measuring behavior through mental processes, from psychophysics, measuring behavior through directly observed processes like a stimulus and response (Venables, 1978). However, these scholars were also complicit in directing measurement to define human differences (Pasquali, 2009). The application of Darwinian evolutionary principles to human populations by Francis Galton and Herbert Spencer in the 19th century solidified science’s role in imperialism and colonialism (Graves, 2003; Rust & Golombok, 2009). Tests and assessments that sought to characterize differences between racialized groups like measuring anthropomorphic features, cultural and social mannerisms, intelligence, and cultural appetites—served to justify racialization, the classification of people into races (henceforth referred to as racialized groups; Ahmed, 2002). Since, the use of tests and assessments to support biogenetic assumptions of ancestry undergird popular scientific discourse asserting a hierarchy of cognitive ability and health that always positions Blackness and Africanness as inferior (Zuberi, 2001). Psychometrics too often does the bidding of racist hierarchical doctrines by validating tests and assessments that presume a construct is racially reflected, genetically distributed, and structural determinant-free (Graves, 2003; Graves & Johnson, 1995).

For example, psychologist and eugenicist Carl C. Brigham summarized the findings of his aptitude test for the US military in his landmark book A Study of American Intelligence with:

“American intelligence is declining, and will proceed with an accelerating rate as the racial admixture becomes more and more extensive. The decline of American intelligence will be more rapid than the decline of the intelligence of European national groups, owing to the presence here of the negro. These are the plain, if somewhat ugly, facts that our study shows” (Brigham, 1923, p. 210).

This test would form the basis for the Scholastic Aptitude Test (or SAT) that he would also play a substantial role in developing. Insult to injury is furthered when disproportionate sample sizes reduce the salience of cultural and structural determinants to measurement invariance, lack of differential functioning, and statistical insignificance (Adkins-Jackson & Levine, 2020). This was the case in Brigham’s study that included 93,955 participants racialized as White and 23,596 racialized as Black (Brigham, 1923).¹

Brigham’s intention to distinguish racialized groups from each other through aptitude tests then use those tests to validate social differences that dictated access to resources—was clear in the sentence that concludes the aforementioned text, “The deterioration of American Intelligence is not inevitable, however, if public action can be aroused to prevent it. There is no reason why legal steps should not be taken which would insure a continuously progressive upward evolution” (Brigham, 1923, p. 210). His final paragraph argues for “highly selective” immigration and naturalization laws to protect against the “propagation of defective strains” (Brigham, 1923, p. 210). Brigham’s book is a nearly 1,000-page text using psychometrics to dehumanize people racialized as Black and others deemed inferior. The field of psychometrics has had and continues to play a key role in scientific racism by fueling racist notions of human difference and supplying the means by which that difference is assessed.

The origins of the field of psychometrics are inexplicably linked with the exploitation of all racialized people, and in particular, those racialized as Black who bore the brunt of scientific experimentation (Brandt, 1978; Washington, 2006). A lesser told story is about the scientific imprint of scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black within the field of psychometrics itself. Since its beginning, such scholars, scientists, and psychometricians have contested the science that qualifies human difference based on racism. These scholars, scientists, and psychometricians were instrumental in countering false narratives of Black life, while advancing the field of psychometrics through infrastructure and interdisciplinarity. The contributions of scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black transformed psychometrics, and subsequently, their efforts and legacy must be recognized.

A Legacy of Black Measurement

There are two major contributions of scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black: infrastructure and interdisciplinarity. Infrastructure includes the personnel and training programs built by people racialized as Black that advanced the field of psychometrics. Interdisciplinarity include knowledge production and disciplinary standards.

Infrastructure

Personnel: Black Psychometricians

Many scholars and scientists racialized as Black have long included psychometrics in their various intellectual explorations. A few of these researchers have gone beyond the development of measures and have taken on roles consistent with a psychometrician. For the purposes of this article, a psychometrician is defined as an individual who professionally develops, validates, and/or manages the evaluation of tests and assessments. Their psychometric work can be found in colleges and universities, government agencies, research institutes, testing companies, and licensing organizations (Universities.com, n.d).

Social psychologist Dr. Peggy Carr was appointed by President Biden as the Commissioner of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and is responsible for planning, directing, and managing large-scale educational assessments including the National Assessment of Educational Progress, the Program for International Student Assessment, and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. Dr. Carr supervises and coordinates all technical, logistical, and administrative tasks including item development, data collection, scoring, psychometric analysis, and reporting (National Center for Education Statistics Blog, 2021). Similarly, Dr. Patricia Etienne, Branch Chief of the Assessments Division, works to plan and implement assessments for NCES. In addition, Dr. Etienne secures the next generation of psychometricians by teaching in the graduate program in psychometrics at Morgan State University, a Historical Black University.

There are psychometricians in testing companies like Dr. Michael Walker, an expert in test design and equating and the Director of the Center for Research on Validity, Fairness, and Equity in Learning and Assessment at Educational Testing Service (ETS). Previously, he directed several large-scale testing programs (Kim & Walker, 2021). Dr. Walker’s more recent work focuses on how sociocultural factors influence educational outcomes, and how tests can become socioculturally responsive (Walker, 2021). Dr. Terran Brown, another psychometrician working at a testing company, is the Vice President of Assessment Design and Development at New Meridian. He draws inspiration from social policy and statistics to engage the field of psychometrics. Other psychometricians in testing companies include Dr. Winnie Reid, a career psychometrician that worked in several testing companies as well as public schools. Dr. Gwyneth M. Boodoo earned a doctorate in educational measurement and directed an Equity in Assessment research program at ETS (Gwyneth Boodoo, 2021). After a career in the psychometric industry, Dr. Boodoo ventured into entrepreneurship with an educational consultancy business called GMB Enterprises.

While there are numerous research institutions outside of academia where psychometricians can be found, there are a few noteworthy psychometricians at research institutes within academia like the Office of Educational Assessment, Institutional Research, and similar offices. These psychometricians evaluate tests and assessments in addition to student performance at the college or university. At Morgan State University, the Office of Institutional Research is run by psychometrician Dr. Cheryl Rollins, one of the few psychometricians racialized as Black with a doctoral degree in the field. The University of Washington’s Office of Assessment housed psychometrician Dr. Debbie E. McGhee, who was a part of the team that developed and evaluated the validity of the Implicit Association Test (University of Washington Office of Educational Assessment, 2000).

Morgan State’s Center for Predictive Analytics houses psychometrician Dr. Duvon Winborne who throughout his career designed psychometric tools and applications to improve quality of life for minoritized populations in a variety of settings including industry and academia. More specifically, Dr. Winborne incorporated culturally-responsive and inclusive measurements in the large-scale tests and assessments that he managed in the fields of education and health including designing instruments to monitor at-risk and differently-abled infants and families (Winborne & Randolph, 1992; Winborne & Vowels, 1991). At the Center for Predictive Analytics, Dr. Winborne designs measurement instruments for community-based, client-driven research.

Notable psychometricians that work in academia include Dr. Hector F. Myers, one of the analysts behind numerous health-related measures (Liu et al., 2015; Ortiz et al., 2013; Rodriguez et al., 2015); Dr. Robert T. Carter, an academic psychometrician who developed and evaluated over 10 measures relating to trauma and racism (Campón & Carter, 2015; Carter et al., 2013, 2016, 2018; Carter & Muchow, 2017; Carter & Sant-Barket, 2015; Forsyth et al., 2015; Forsyth & Carter, 2014); and Dr. A. Nayena Blankson, an academic psychometrician and consultant who focuses on cognition in childhood and markers of academic success (Blankson & McArdle, 2014, 2015). There is also Dr. Shawn O. Utsey, a prolific academic psychometrician developing a handful of assessments on racism-related stress and cultural competency, as well as extensively evaluating the validity of other assessments (Pieterse et al., 2016; Ponterotto et al., 2002, 2003; Utsey, 1998; Utsey et al., 2000; Utsey, 1999; Utsey et al., 2004, 2005, 2013; Utsey & Constantine, 2006; Utsey & Ponterotto, 1996, 1999).

From standardized tests to licensure exams, psychometricians racialized as Black are often the analysts behind the creation, validation, evaluation, and maintenance of tests and assessments that measure complex psychological constructs. Their roles are extremely important given the implications and widespread distribution of tests and assessments as well as the historical impact of psychometric measures on racialized groups.

Training Programs: Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) played a vital role in developing and strengthening the field of psychometrics by training future psychometricians. Many noteworthy psychometricians racialized as Black were products of HBCUs: Dr. Robert Lee Williams, II of Philander Smith College; Dr. Reginald L. Jones of Morehouse; Drs. Paris B. Adkins-Jackson and Duvon Winborne of Morgan State; Dr. Winnie Reid of North Carolina A & T; and Drs. Peggy Carr, Robert Sellers, Mamie P., and Kenneth Clark of Howard University. Therefore, it is not a surprise that of the 14 US programs in psychometrics and quantitative psychology, two are at HBCUs: Morgan State University and Jackson State University. Morgan State University offers master of science and doctoral degree programs in psychometrics, and Jackson State University offers a postgraduate specialization in Education Psychometry. In addition, there are countless other programs in psychology, education, statistics, mathematics, and public health that have and will undoubtedly lead to future psychometricians.

Along with the infrastructure that HBCUs provide, community and mentorship among scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black have been instrumental in sustaining the field of psychometrics. Many psychometricians racialized as Black trained future psychometricians. For example, academic psychometrician Dr. Janet Helms, who developed the Black racial identity attitude scale (Form RIAS-B) (Helms & Parham, 1990) and arguably the methodological framework for quantifying racial identity that can be found in subsequent measures of racial identity, served as the Augustus Long Chair in Tests and Assessment at Boston College for over a decade (Helms, 1992; Helms et al., 2005; Helms, 2006). Over her career, she inspired a generation of psychometricians including being the academic mentor for Dr. Robert T. Carter (Helms, personal communication, November 14, 2021). Drs. Etienne and Winborne taught and mentored the psychometricians of this publication; thus, the cycle of contributions continues.

Interdisciplinarity

The second major contribution of scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black to the field of psychometrics is interdisciplinarity. Many psychometricians racialized as Black were not formally trained in the field of psychometrics. Such persons came to the profession by way of mathematics, psychology, education, public health, and other related areas of study. Many of the psychometricians racialized as Black described above were trained in psychology, educational measurement, mathematics, or statistics. Consequently, where there are scholars and scientists racialized as Black in these fields, we will find budding psychometricians. Statisticians racialized as Black have meaningfully shaped psychometrics. For example, Dr. Melody Goodman developed a measure of stakeholder engagement in research (Measurement, Learning & Evaluation Lab, n.d.), in addition to other contributions to validation processes (Goodman et al., 2019, 2020, 2021; Hidalgo et al., 2015; Thompson et al., 2020). One of the first and most famous US statisticians, Dr. David Blackwell, influenced probability theory and Bayesian statistics, which are core to psychometric analyses today. Such interdisciplinarity has informed knowledge production and disciplinary standards alike in psychometrics.

Knowledge Production: Measuring Black Life

As the use of anthropometric and performance assessments permeated mainstream spaces in the 20th century, there were scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black producing research and discourse that combatted racist narratives of human difference and Blackness. Their innovative tests and assessments produced more authentic research on the diversity of humanity, and specifically, of people racialized as Black.

Howard University was responsible for the early education of renowned social psychologists Drs. Mamie P. and Kenneth Clark. In the 1940s, Drs. Mamie P. and Kenneth Clark expanded psychological assessments for use with children racialized as Black. Most famously, they developed a doll test that illuminated the impact of segregation and internalized racism on children (Clark & Clark, 1950). As Drs. Clark revealed, factors related to structural racism, such as segregation and internalized racism, present the greatest concern to Black psychological and physical health in the US (Clark & Clark, 1950). The findings from the “Doll Study” would be used in supreme court Brown v. the Board of Education ruling to demonstrate inequities in school facilities. The Clarks’ research would inspire generations of research on the impact of racial segregation on the health of people racialized as Black.

Scholars from various fields sought to document the impact of structural racism on health, including journalists like Ida B. Wells and sociologists like W.E.B. Du Bois (Du Bois, 1898). In addition, psychologists created discourse and infrastructure for the study of Black life, such as clinical psychologist Dr. Joseph L. White, the father of Black psychology, who advocated a non-deficit-based psychology that prioritized the understanding of those racialized as Black based on their authentic experiences (Cokley & Garba, 2018). This also includes Dr. Robert Lee Williams, II, who was a clinical and educational psychologist, a pioneer in Black psychology, and one of the founders of the Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi). In 1972, Dr. Williams II developed the Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity, an intelligence test tailored to the sociocultural experience of Americans racialized as Black (R. L. Williams, 1972).

Clinical psychologist Dr. Reginald L. Jones, also a founder of ABPsi, edited two volumes of the Handbook of Tests and Measurement for Black Populations in 1996. These volumes provided over 80 written assessments to capture cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of psychological processes in populations racialized as Black (Jones, 1996). These encyclopedias of measurement included works by clinical psychologist and board-certified sex therapist Dr. Gail Wyatt, who throughout her career developed assessments and screening tools that measure sexual and physical trauma and its effects on depression and post-traumatic stress disorder alongside racial discrimination (Liu et al., 2015).

There have been other measures of Black life including spirituality (Levin et al., 1995; R. J. Taylor, 1988) and coping (James et al., 1987) that have been examined. However, measures of racial identity by scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black are more prevalent, like those perfected by counseling and ethnic minority psychologist Dr. Helms (mentioned above: Helms & Carter, 1990; Helms & Parham, 1990; Sellers et al., 1998). Psychometricians like Dr. Helms demonstrated that children racialized as Black learn white culture later than their counterparts racialized as White, and thus, underperform on educational assessments normed on middle class populations racialized as White (Helms, 1992). Her point was that it is wrong to presume that children racialized as Black underperform if the constructs that are culturally responsive to their lived experiences are not included on these tests (Helms, personal communication, November 14, 2021). Besides research on children, there are scholars focusing on the aging population, like neuropsychologist Dr. Jennifer Manly. Dr. Manly has contributed to both the validation of cognitive assessments as well as to challenges to the cross-cultural validation of commonly used assessments (Manly & Echemendia, 2007; Sunderaraman et al., 2016; Weintraub et al., 2013).

Recognizing the intersectional oppression experienced by cisgender women racialized as Black, clinical and social psychologist Dr. Hope Landrine developed a measure of lifetime discrimination (Klonoff & Landrine, 1995). Furthering this research, counseling psychologist Dr. Jioni A. Lewis and clinical/community and counseling psychologist Dr. Helen A. Neville developed an intersectional measure of racism and sexism (Lewis & Neville, 2015). Dr. Neville also developed other assessments related to racialized experiences (Neville et al., 2000; Spanierman et al., 2011). Community psychologist and public health researcher Dr. Derek Griffith created a multidimensional scale to capture the unique experiences of cisgender men racialized as Black (Griffith et al., 2019). By incorporating age, educational and social psychologist Dr. Jamilia Blake quantified the discriminatory experiences of cisgender girls racialized as Black (Epstein et al., 2017). These contributions demonstrate that while racism significantly influences the wellbeing of all people racialized as Black, there are unique discriminatory experiences at the intersection of gender, sexuality, and age that further exacerbate these impacts.

Some psychologists more directly followed in the footsteps of Drs. Clark by measuring racism and its effects. Dr. Kobi Kambon, a personality and social psychologist, developed and validated the Cultural Misorientation Scale, a psychometric tool that measures the adverse impact of cultural oppression on the psyche of persons racialized as Black (Cokley & Garba, 2018; Kambon & Rackley, 2005). Social psychologist Dr. James S. Jackson and clinical psychologist Dr. Norman B. Anderson worked with public health researcher/sociologist Dr. David R. Williams to examine the impact of interpersonal racism on a heterogeneous sample of people racialized as Black, resulting in the development of multiple instruments (McNeilly et al., 1996; Sims et al., 2009; D. R. Williams et al., 1997). Similarly, social and clinical psychologist Dr. Debbie E. McGhee (mentioned above) developed the Implicit Association Test, an assessment of racist bias that is widely used (Greenwald et al., 1998). The effects of experiencing racism, like stress and internalized racism, have been measured by clinical psychologist Dr. Jerome Taylor, ethnic minority psychologist Dr. Utsey (mentioned above), and counseling psychologists Drs. Tama Kuii-Bailey and Richard T. Carter (Bailey et al., 2011; Campón & Carter, 2015; J. Taylor & Grundy, 1996; Utsey & Ponterotto, 1996).

Others, like clinical psychologist Dr. Oscar Barbarin, developed measures of institutional racism (Barbarin & Gilbert, 1981) and contributed significantly to the conceptual framework of institutional racism, like clinical-community psychologist Dr. Roderick J. Watts (Watts & Carter, 1991). This framework inspired Dr. Griffith (Griffith et al., 2007), whose mentee psychometrician and public health researcher Dr. Paris B. Adkins-Jackson, developed a measure of institutional racism in academic health centers (Adkins-Jackson et al., 2021). Public health and health policy scientists, like Dr. Rachel Hardeman, have also drawn on this literature to develop a multidimensional measure of structural racism (Chantarat et al., 2021). The aforementioned scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black contextualized, reframed, and ultimately reformed psychological science through engagement with psychometrics to challenge white supremacy and racial hierarchy (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Tests and Assessments Created by Black Scholars and Scientists.

Black scholars & scientists	Year	Test or assessment	Topic	Citation
Adkins-Jackson, Paris B.	2021	Institutional racism in academic health centers	Institutional racism	Adkins-Jackson et al. (2021)
Anderson, Norman B.	1996	The Perceived Racism Scale	Interpersonal racism	McNeilly et al. (1996)
Barbarin, Oscar	1981	Institutional Racism Scale	Racism	Barbarin and Gilbert (1981)
Carter, Robert T.	2013	Race-based Traumatic Stress Symptom Scale	Trauma/Stress	Carter et al. (2013)
	2014	The Racism-related Coping Scale	Coping	Forsyth and Carter (2014)
	2015	The Appropriated Racial Oppression Scale	Internalized racism	Campón and Carter (2015)
Clark, Eddie M.	2001	African American Collectivism Scale	Communalism	Lukwago et al. (2001)
Clark, Mamie P. and Kenneth	1950	Doll test	Internalized racism	Clark and Clark (1950)
Goodman, Melody S.	2015	Self-reported Racial Composition of Residential Neighborhood	Neighborhood composition	Hidalgo et al. (2015)
Goodman, Melody S.	2021	Brief Version of the Research Engagement Survey Tool	Community engagement	Goodman et al. (2021)
Griffith, Derek M.	2019	African American Manhood	Identity	Griffith et al. (2019)
Hardeman, Rachel	2021	Multidimensional Measure of Structural Racism	Structural racism	Chantarat et al. (2021)
Helms, Janet E.	1990	Black racial identity attitude scale (Form RIAS-B)	Identity	Helms and Carter (1990)
Helms, Janet E. (and Robert T. Carter)	1990	White Racial Identity Inventory	Identity	Helms and Carter (1990)
Jackson, James S.	1980	National Survey of Black Life	Health behaviors & Activities	Program for Research on Black Americans (n.d)
Jackson, James S.	2004	National Survey of American Life	Health behaviors	Jackson, Neighbors et al. (2004), Jackson, Torres et al. (2004)
James, Sherman A.	1987	John Henryism Scale for Active Coping	Coping	James et al. (1987)
Kambon, Kobi K. K. (and Reginald Rackley)	2005	Cultural Misorientation Scale (CMS)	Internalized racism	Kambon and Rackley (2005)
Kuii-Bailey, Tama	2011	Internalized Racial Oppression Scale	Internalized racism	Bailey et al. (2011)
Landrine, Hope	1995	Lifetime and Recent Sexist Discrimination	Interpersonal racism & sexism	Klonoff and Landrine (1995)
Lewis, Jioni A. (and Helen A. Neville)	2015	Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale	Interpersonal racism & sexism	Lewis and Neville (2015)
McGhee, Debbie E.	1998	Implicit Association Test	Awareness	Greenwald et al. (1998)
Myers, Hector F.	2013	Diabetes Distress Scale (DDS)	Stress	Ortiz et al. (2013)
Myers, Hector F.	2015	Multidimensional Acculturative Stress Inventory	Stress	Rodriguez et al. (2015)
Myers, Hector F. (and Gail Wyatt)	2015	Composite Trauma Exposure Risk Index	Trauma	Liu et al. (2015)
Neville, Helen A.	2000	Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS)	Interpersonal racism	Neville et al. (2000)
Neville, Helen A.	2011	Multicultural Teaching Competency Scale	Cultural competency	Spanierman et al. (2011)
Sellers, Robert M.	1998	Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity	Identity	Sellers et al. (1998)
Taylor, Jerome	1996	The Nadanolitization Scale	Internalized racism	J. Taylor and Grundy (1996)
Taylor, Robert J. and Linda M. Chatters	1995	Multidimensional Measure of religious involvement for African Americans	Activities	Levin et al. (1995)
Utsey, Shawn O.	1996	Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS)	Stress	Utsey and Ponterotto (1996)
	1999	Short form IRRS	Stress	Utsey (1999)
	2000	Africultural Coping Systems Inventory	Coping	Utsey et al. (2000)
	2013	The Prolonged Activation and Anticipatory Race-related Stress scale	Stress	Utsey et al. (2013)
Utsey, Shawn O. (and Alex L. Pieterse)	2016	The Anti-racism Behavioral Inventory (ARBI)	Awareness	Pieterse et al. (2016)
Vandiver, Beverly J., William E. Cross Jr., Frank C. Worrell, Peony E. Fhagen-Smith	2002	Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS)	Identity	Vandiver et al. (2002)
Williams, David R. (with James S. Jackson and Norman B. Anderson)	1997	Everday Discrimination Scale	Discrimination	D. R. Williams et al. (1997)
Williams, David R. (and Mario Sims)	2009	Multidimensional Instrument of Perceived Discrimination	Interpersonal racism	Sims et al. (2009)
Williams, II, Robert Lee	1972	Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity	Intelligence	R. L. Williams (1972)

Disciplinary Standards

Many psychometricians’ contributions go well beyond their tests and assessments. Like Drs. Helms and Boodoo, some serve on testing and standards committees. Dr. Helms served on committees for several organizations, including the APA’s Committee on Testing and the Joint Committee on Testing and Assessment. Dr. Boodoo served on the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education. In these capacities, psychometricians provide their expertise to challenge biases and develop standards that consider the perspectives of diverse groups (National Council on Measurement in Education Recruitment of Educational Measurement Professionals Committee, 2012).

Psychometricians also provide expert testimony in landmark Supreme Court cases. Drs. Clarks’ doll test findings were presented by Dr. Kenneth Clark as expert testimony by future Justice Thurgood Marshall during the Brown versus Board of Education Supreme Court case (Bergner, 2009). Dr. Helms provided Supreme Court testimony on the bias against children racialized as Black embedded in tests and assessments in the Ricci v. Destefano case. Such insights illuminate the implications of structural racism on educational attainment and opportunity. These are but two illustrations of the far reaching influence of psychometricians racialized as Black in providing evidence on the impacts of the long-standing racism and discrimination that has been perpetuated.

Additionally, scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black have left a mark on our national surveys. Social psychologist Dr. James S. Jackson founded the Program for Research on Black Americans (PRBA) in 1976 at the University of Michigan. Dr. Jackson and social psychologist Dr. Harold “Woody” Neighbors famously built a program of research that centered datasets with all participants racialized as Black and no reference group to compare findings; this was not common in disparities research at the time. Through the PRBA, Dr. Jackson and Neighbors built a foundation from which research on Black life flourished. This included the National Survey of Black Americans, which captured the prevalence, risk, and protective factors of psychological disorders in people racialized as Black in the US and the Caribbean (Jackson et al., 2016). The National Survey of Black Americans provoked the inclusivity of culturally responsive questionnaires and purposive sampling in national instruments like the National Survey of American Life (Jackson, Neighbors et al., 2004; Jackson, Torres et al., 2004). Through these efforts, Drs. James S. Jackson, Woody Neighbors, and many others provided the blueprint for the development of methods and standards that are vital for capturing diverse human experiences.

Conclusion

Psychometrics, though largely recognized as a Euro-American invention, has had a long-lasting relationship with people racialized as Black predating colonization. Tests and assessments were employed throughout the historical record with examples dating as far back as Ancient Egypt and Ethiopia (Nobles, 1986; Soueif & Ahmed, 2001). Therefore, it is no surprise that although Greek, Roman, and modern European imperialism and colonization (and American racism) justified the misuse of measurement, the rich connections between psychometrics and people racialized as Black have endured (Barclay, 2017). Whether through plantation healthcare systems created by Africans that were enslaved or by HBCUs, the field of psychometrics have forever been shaped, strengthened, and sustained by scholars, scientists, and psychometricians racialized as Black (Bronson & Nuriddin, 2014; Covey, 2007; Du Bois, 1899; Fett, 2002; Savitt, 2002). Their scientific exploration has written the psychometric story, and therefore, the historical records must recognize and honor their innovations.

Footnotes

Credit Statement

Adkins-Jackson: Conceptualization, Writing- Original Draft, Writing - Reviewing and Editing. Jackson: Conceptualization, Writing- Original Draft, Writing - Reviewing and Editing. Taylor: Conceptualization, Writing- Original Draft. Levine: Writing - Reviewing and Editing. Makhija: Writing- Original Draft, Writing - Reviewing and Editing. Sewell: Writing- Original Draft.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Paris B. Adkins-Jackson

Notes

Author Biographies

Paris B. Adkins-Jackson, PhD MPH is a multidisciplinary community-partnered health equity researcher and Assistant Professor in the Departments of Epidemiology and Sociomedical Sciences at Columbia University. She is an alumna of Morgan State University and a member of the Society for the Analysis of African American Public Health Issues.

Janine A. Jackson is a psychometrician and senior data analyst specializing in culturally responsive educational assessment development and validation. With a rich educational background and over 16 years of K–12 experience, her work spans the U.S. and the UAE, emphasizing the importance of cultural context in measurement.

Tonya Ross Taylor is from Morgan State University, Baltimore, MD, USA.

Elana R. Levine is a Independent Consultant, Binghamton, NY, USA

Anisha Makhija graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a double major in Psychology and Molecular and Cell Biology. She is currently a medical student at the University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, and she plans to become a compassionate provider advocating for diversity and equity in healthcare.

Alyasah Ali Sewell is an Associate Professor of Sociology at Emory University and Executive Director of the Critical Racism Data Lab with affiliations in African American Studies and Behavioral, Social, and Health Education Sciences at Rollins School of Public Health. They quantify systemic racism using interdisciplinary studies of policing and redlining.

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