The authors extend the conceptual work of Anderson and Oliver (1987) and Jaworski (1988) on control in three ways. First, they account for the independent effects of the reinforcement dimension of control, in addition to the information dimension traditionally studied. Second, to reflect the varied behaviors that supervisors attempt to control, they disaggregate behavior control into activity control and capability control. Third, they delineate the direct and mediated effects of control on salespeople. Their proposed framework was tested with data collected from 270 salespeople in five industrial product divisions of two Fortune 500 companies. The findings suggest that managers must carefully match controls-in-use with desired results. Overall, the results show that information and reinforcement effects vary, which suggests the need to distinguish between the information provided and the actual reinforcements administered to salespeople. They also show that activity and capability control have different effects and draw a sharp distinction between two types of behavior control. Finally, the results suggest that supervisory controls primarily have indirect effects on salesperson performance, but both direct and indirect effects on satisfaction
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AgarwalSanjeev and RamaswamiSridhar N. (1993), “Marketing Controls and Employee Responses: The Moderating Role of Task Characteristics,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21 (4), 293–306.
2.
AndersonErin and OliverRichard L. (1987), “Perspectives on Behavior-Based Versus Outcome-Based Sales Force Control Systems,” Journal of Marketing, 51 (October), 76–88.
3.
ArveyRichard D. and IvancevichJohn M. (1980), “Punishment in Organizations: A Review, Propositions and Research Suggestions,” Academy of Management Review, 5 (1), 123–32.
4.
AshfordSusan J. and CummingsL. L. (1983), “Feedback as an Individual Resource: Personal Strategies of Creating Information,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32, 370–98.
5.
BanduraAlbert (1977), Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6.
BehrmanDouglas N. and PerraultWilliam D.Jr. (1984), “A Role Stress Model of the Performance and Satisfaction of Industrial Salespersons,” Journal of Marketing, 48 (Fall), 9–21.
7.
BelliziJoseph A. and HiteRobert E. (1989), “Supervising Unethical Salesforce Behavior,” Journal of Marketing, 53 (April), 36–47.
8.
BentlerPeter M. and ChouChih-Ping (1987), “Practical Issues in Structural Modeling,” Sociological Methods and Research, 16 (1), 78–117.
9.
BrownSteven P. and PetersonRobert A. (1994), “The Effect of Effort on Sales Performance and Job Satisfaction,” Journal of Marketing, 58 (April), 70–80.
10.
Business Week (1994), “Rethinking Work,” (October 17), 74–87.
11.
CarverCharles C. and ScheierMichael F. (1982), “Control Theory: A Useful Conceptual Framework for Personality-Social, Clinical, and Health Psychology,” Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111–35.
ChowdhuryJhinuk (1993), “The Motivational Impact of Sales Quotas on Effort,” Journal of Marketing Research, 30 (February), 28–41.
14.
ChurchillGilbert A.Jr., FordNeil M., and WalkerOrville C.Jr. (1990), Sales Force Management: Planning, Implementation and Control, 3d ed. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.
15.
CravensDonald W., IngramThomas N., LaForgeRaymond W., and YoungClifford E. (1993), “Behavior-Based and Outcome-Based Sales Force Control Systems,” Journal of Marketing, 57 (October), 47–59.
16.
CronWilliam L. and SlocumJohn W.Jr (1986), “The Influence of Career Stages on Salespeople's Job Attitudes, Work Perceptions, and Performance,” Journal of Marketing Research, 23 (May), 119–29.
17.
DeciEdward L. and RyanRichard M. (1985), Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
18.
DillonWilliam R., and MatthewGoldstein (1984), Multivariate Analysis: Methods and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
19.
DubinskyAlan J. and BarryThomas E. (1982), “A Survey of Sales Management Practices,” Industrial Marketing Management, 11 (April), 133–41.
20.
FryLouis W., FutrellCharles M., ParasuramanA., and MargaretA. Chmielewski (1986), “An Analysis of Alternative Causal Models of Salesperson Role Perceptions and Work Related Attitudes,” Journal of Marketing Research, 23 (May), 153–63.
21.
FutrellCharles M., SwanJohn E., and ToddJohn T. (1976), “Job Performance Related to Management Control Systems for Pharmaceutical Salesman,” Journal of Marketing Research, 13 (February), 25–33.
22.
GerbingDavid W. and AndersonJames C. (1988), “An Updated Paradigm for Scale Development Incorporating Unidimensionality and Its Assessment,” Journal of Marketing Research, 25 (May), 186–92.
23.
GlickWilliam H. and RobertsKarlene H. (1984), “Hypothesized Interdependence, Assumed Independence,” Academy of Management Review, 9, 722–35.
24.
HouseRobert J. and DesslerGary (1974), “The Path Goal Theory of Leadership: Some Post-Hoc and A Priori Tests,” in Contingency Approaches to Leadership, HuntJames G. and LarsonLars L., eds. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 29–55.
25.
IngramThomas N. and BellengerDanny N. (1983), “Personal and Organizational Variables: Their Relative Effect on Reward Valences of Industrial Salespeople,” Journal of Marketing Research, 20 (May), 198–205.
26.
JacksonDonald W.Jr., OstromLonnie L., and EvansKenneth R. (1982), “Measures Used to Evaluate Industrial Marketing Activities,” Industrial Marketing Management, 11, 269–74.
27.
JaworskiBernard J. (1988), “Toward a Theory of Marketing Control: Environmental Context, Control Types, and Consequences,” Journal of Marketing, 52 (July) 23–39.
28.
JaworskiBernard J. and KohliAjay K. (1991), “Supervisory Feedback: Alternative Types and Their Impact on Salespeople's Performance and Satisfaction,” Journal of Marketing Research, 28 (May), 190–201.
29.
JaworskiBernard J. and MacInnisDeborah J. (1989), “Marketing Jobs and Management Controls: Toward a Framework,” Journal of Marketing Research, 26 (November), 406–19.
30.
JaworskiBernard J., StathakopoulosVlasis, and KrishnanH. Shanker (1993), “Control Combinations in Marketing: Conceptual Framework and Empirical Evidence,” Journal of Marketing, 57 (January), 57–69.
31.
JohnstonMark W., ParasuramanA., FutrellCharles M., and BlackWilliam C. (1990), “A Longitudinal Assessment of the Impact of Selected Organizational Influences on Salespeople's Organizational Commitment During Early Employment,” Journal of Marketing Research, 27 (August), 333–44.
32.
KellerRobert T. and SzilagyiAndrew D. (1976), “Employee Reaction to Leader Reward Behavior,” Academy of Management Journal, 19 (December), 619–27.
33.
KleinHoward J. (1989), “An Integrated Control Theory Model of Work Motivation,” Academy of Management Review, 14 (2), 150–72.
34.
LawlerEdward E. (1990), Strategic Pay: Aligning Organizational Strategies and Pay Systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
35.
LawlerEdward E. (1992), The Ultimate Advantage. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
36.
LawlerEdward E. and RhodeJohn G. (1976), Information and Control in Organizations. Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear Publishing Company.
37.
LockeEdwin A. and LathamGary P. (1990), A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
38.
LuschRobert L. and JaworskiBernard J. (1991), “Management Controls, Role Stress, and Retail Store Manager Performance,” Journal of Retailing, 67 (Winter), 397–419.
39.
LuthansFred and KreitnerRobert (1985), Organizational Behavior Modification. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.
40.
MacKenzieScott B., PodsakoffPhilip M., and FetterRichard (1993), “The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behavior on Evaluations of Salesperson Performance,” Journal of Marketing, 57 (January), 70–80.
41.
McDonaldRoderick and MarshHerbert W. (1990), “Choosing a Multivariate Model: Noncentrality and Goodness of Fit,” Psychological Bulletin, 107 (2), 247–55.
42.
MerchantKenneth (1985), Control in Business Organizations. Boston: Pitman Publishing.
43.
MichaelsRonald E., CronWilliam L., DubinskyAlan J., and JoachimsthalerErich A. (1988), “Influence of Formalization on the Organizational Commitment and Work Alienation of Salespeople and Industrial Buyers,” Journal of Marketing Research, 25 (November), 376–83.
44.
MorrisMichael H., DavisDuane L., AllenJeffrey W., AvilaRamon A., and ChapmanJoseph (1991), “Assessing the Relationships Among Performance Measures, Managerial Practices, and Satisfaction When Evaluating the Sales Force: A Replication and Extension,” Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 11 (Summer), 25–35.
45.
MowenJohn C., KeithJanet E., BrownStephen W., and JacksonDonald W.Jr. (1985), “Utilizing Effort and Task Information in Evaluating Salespeople,” Journal of Marketing Research, 22 (May), 185–91.
46.
NeterJohn, WassermanWilliam, and KutnerMichael H. (1985), Applied Linear Statistical Models: Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Experimental Designs. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.
47.
NunnallyJum C. (1978), Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
48.
OliverRichard L. and AndersonErin (1994), “An Empirical Test of the Consequences of Behavior and Outcome-Based Sales Control Systems,” Journal of Marketing, 58 (October), 53–67.
49.
O'ReillyCharles A. and BartonA. Weitz (1980), “Managing Marginal Employees: The Use of Warnings and Dismissals,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 467–84.
50.
OuchiWilliam G. (1977), “The Relationship Between Organizational Structure and Organizational Control,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 22 (March), 95–113.
51.
PodsakoffPhilip M., TodorWilliam D., GroverRichard A., and HuberVandra L. (1984), “Situational Moderators of Leader Reward and Punishment Behaviors: Fact or Fiction?” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 21–63.
52.
RigbyScott C., DeciEdward L., PatrickBrian C., and RyanRichard M. (1992), “Beyond the Intrinsic-Extrinsic Dichotomy: Self-Determination in Motivation and Learning,” Motivation and Emotion, 16 (3), 165–85.
53.
SchulPatrick L, RemingtonSteven, and BerlRobert L. (1990), “Assessing Gender Differences in Relationships Between Supervisory Behaviors and Job-Related Outcomes in the Industrial Sales Force,” Journal of Personal and Sales Management, 10 (Summer), 1–16.
54.
SinghJagdip (1993), “Boundary Role Ambiguity: Facets, Determinants, and Impacts,” Journal of Marketing, 57 (April), 11–31.
55.
SinghJagdip and RhoadsGary (1991), “Boundary Role Ambiguity in Marketing Oriented Positions: A Multidimensional, Multifaceted Operationalization,” Journal of Marketing Research, 28 (August), 328–38.
56.
SujanHarish, WeitzBarton A., and KumarNirmalya (1994), “Learning Orientation, Working Smart, and Effective Selling,” Journal of Marketing, 58 (July), 39–52.
57.
SzymanskiDavid M. and GilbertA. ChurchillJr. (1990), “Client Evaluation Cues: A Comparison of Successful and Unsuccessful Salespeople,” Journal of Marketing Research, 27 (May), 163–74.
58.
TeasKenneth R., WackerJohn G., and HughesR. Eugene (1979), “A Path Analysis of Causes and Consequences of Salespeople's Perceptions of Role Clarity,” Journal of Marketing Research, 16 (August), 355–69.
59.
TyagiPradeep K. (1985), “Relative Importance of Key Job Dimensions and Leadership Behaviors in Motivating Salesperson Work Performance,” Journal of Marketing, 49 (Summer), 76–86.
60.
TyagiPradeep K. (1990), “Inequities in Organizations, Salesperson Motivation and Job Satisfaction,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 7 (December), 135–48.
61.
WalkerOrville C.Jr., GilbertA. ChurchillJr., and FordNeil M. (1975), “Organizational Determinants of the Industrial Salesman's Role Conflict and Ambiguity,” Journal of Marketing, 39 (January), 32–39.
62.
WeitzBarton A., SujanHarish, and SujanMita (1986), “Knowledge, Motivation, and Adaptive Behavior: A Framework for Improving Selling Effectiveness,” Journal of Marketing, 50 (October), 174–91.
63.
WotrubaThomas R. (1989), “The Effect of Goal Setting on the Performance of Independent Sales Agents in Direct Selling,” Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 9 (Spring), 22–29.
64.
WotrubaThomas R. and SimpsonEdwin K. (1992), Sales Management: Text and Cases. Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing Company.
