Adaptation and Initial Validation of the Interpersonal Behaviors Questionnaire—Self with Spanish Physical Education Pre-Service Teachers

Abstract

Building upon Self-Determination Theory, the objective of this research was to gather validity and reliability evidence on the use of the Interpersonal Behaviors Questionnaire (IBQ-Self) in the Spanish physical education (PE) teacher training context. Participants were 419 pre-service PE teachers (48.45% women; M_age = 26.97; SD = 6.49) from eight public universities; all were enrolled in the Professional Master’s program in Education. We found psychometric support for a 24-item six-factor correlated model of the IBQ-Self that was invariant across gender. There was also evidence for discriminant validity and reliability of this instrument. Criterion validity was provided by positive relationships found between need satisfaction and need-supportive behaviors, and between need frustration and need-thwarting behaviors. Overall, the IBQ-Self is a valid and reliable measure of Spanish pre-service PE teachers’ perceptions of their own need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors.

Keywords

need-supportive style need-thwarting style need-nurturing behaviors controlling behaviors teaching student

Introduction

In Physical Education (PE), teacher behaviors play an important role in developing students’ motivational and academic achievements (Vasconcellos et al., 2020). Previous research under the Self-Determination Theory framework (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017) has shown that when teachers engage in need-supportive behaviors, such as providing opportunities for students to make their own choices, PE is positively associated with higher quality student motivation and adaptive outcomes (Vasconcellos et al., 2020). Alternatively, teachers’ use of need-thwarting behaviors (e.g., providing controlling feedback) are positively related to low-quality student motivation and maladaptive consequences (Vasconcellos et al., 2020). To inform PE teacher educators, as well as in-service and pre-service PE teachers, about the potential benefits of need-supportive behaviors and risks of need-thwarting behaviors in their teaching, it is necessary to provide a more detailed understanding of the type and nature of the different manifestations of their need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors.

Self-Determination Theory: Interpersonal Behaviors

SDT constitutes an organismic-dialectical macro-theory focused on explaining the influence that social and contextual factors have on motivation, behavior, personality, and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2017). According to SDT, there are six types of need-supportive and need-thwarting interpersonal behaviors coming from any socializing agent (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Autonomy-supportive behaviors include providing opportunities to choose, detailed justifications for tasks, recognizing the opinions of others, and encouraging involvement in activities. Autonomy-thwarting behaviors involve using intimidating and coercive language, making demands without giving prior justifications, and using contingent rewards. Competence-supportive behaviors provide both useful and clarifying information as positive feedback that guides others to perform a specific task successfully and believe in the skills of others to face and overcome challenges. Competence-thwarting behaviors highlight others' mistakes and discourage engagement in difficult activities; they involve questioning and doubting a person’s ability to improve and overcome barriers. Relatedness-supportive behaviors show understanding, support, and care for others, and they establish a genuine link with others. Finally, relatedness-thwarting behaviors involve maintaining distance from others, showing aversion, and acting hostile. Researchers have shown that autonomy-supportive, competence-supportive, and relatedness-supportive behaviors promote need-supportive environments, whereas autonomy-thwarting, competence-thwarting, and relatedness-thwarting behaviors result in need-thwarting environments (Buzzai et al., 2021; Tóth-Király et al., 2022).

Although it may seem that need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors can be conceptualized as opposite extremes of the same need-nurturing continuum (Tóth-Király et al., 2022), consistent results from past research have established that need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors are two distinct but relatively related constructs (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Specifically, low levels of need-supportive behaviors do not necessarily imply the presence of need-thwarting behaviors, to the extent that need-supportive behaviors do not adequately capture the nature and active intensity of the experiences typical of a need-thwarting environment (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). For instance, a teacher who is low on need-supportive behaviors would come across as non-supportive or indifferent if they did not attend to the students’ opinions or their internal motivational resources (low autonomy support), did not provide adequate information to guide them in the task being performed (low competence support), or neglected to favor positive social interactions between the students (low relatedness support). In contrast, a teacher prone to using a need-thwarting style would use intimidation and coercion, highlight student failures by making them doubt their skills, and actively show their aversion to the student. Based on this conceptual distinction between need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors, SDT has proposed a bright motivational pathway towards personal growth and well-being with need-supportive behaviors as the starting point, as well as a dark motivational pathway towards malfunctioning and ill-being in which need-thwarting behaviors are the starting point (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).

According to this perspective, need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors can exist in the same context simultaneously, each being associated with specific and unique antecedents, motivational processes and consequences (Burgueño, García-González, et al., 2022; Leo et al., 2022). Although we found no studies to date that examined the associations of pre-service PE teachers’ need-based experiences with their own need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors in classroom practice, SDT-based research has demonstrated that in-service teachers’ perceptions of their need-supportive behaviors were directly and primarily predicted by the satisfaction of their own basic psychological needs of autonomy (i.e., choice and psychological freedom in the actions undertaken), competence (i.e., mastery and effectiveness in performing a task), and relatedness (i.e., mutual care and being integrated into a peer group) (Abós et al., 2018; Moè & Katz, 2022; Vermote et al., 2022). Further, the in-service teachers’ perceptions of their need-thwarting behaviors were directly and to a greater extent predicted by their own autonomy frustration (i.e., the perception of being coerced and controlled to do a specific behavior), competence frustration (i.e., the perception of ineffectiveness and inferiority when carrying out an activity), and relatedness frustration (i.e., the perception of loneliness, rejection, and social exclusion) (Moè & Katz, 2022; Vermote et al., 2022).

Measuring Interpersonal Behaviors in Pre-Service PE Teachers

Much of the previous SDT-based research in initial teacher education focused on assessing the pre-service teachers’ perception of need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors from their educator (e.g., Burgueño, González-Cutre, et al., 2022; González et al., 2018). However, we found no studies in which investigators measured pre-service PE teachers’ perceptions of their own need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors in the classroom practice.

Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al. (2017) developed the Interpersonal Behaviors Questionnaire (IBQ) to measure simultaneously the respondents’ perceptions of autonomy-supportive, competence-supportive, relatedness-supportive, autonomy-thwarting, competence-thwarting, and relatedness-thwarting behaviors. The instrument was created to evaluate the way in which the interpersonal behaviors of a particular socializing agent (e.g., an educator, parent, coach) are perceived (IBQ), as well as the way in which someone reports their own interpersonal behaviors (IBQ-Self). The two versions (IBQ and IBQ-Self) of the questionnaire were developed through a series of different sequential studies that provided psychometric support for a 24-item, six-factor correlated model. In addition, evidence was provided to support gender measurement invariance, discriminant validity (with Pearson correlation values between .61 and .78), item consistency or internal reliability (with Cronbach’s alpha scores between .75 and .81), and criterion validity. While the IBQ version has been broadly extended to other contexts in samples with different sociolinguistic characteristics (e.g., Alexe et al., 2022; Burgueño & Medina-Casaubón, 2021; Rodrigues et al., 2021; Tóth-Király et al., 2022; Xiao & Toyama, 2020), the IBQ-Self version has received less cross-cultural attention. More particularly, the 24-item, six-factor correlated model of the IBQ-Self obtained a good psychometric performance when used with Canadian coaches (Camiré et al., 2019; Rocchi, Pelletier, & Desmarais, 2017), and Portuguese exercise professionals (Rodrigues et al., 2021). However, there is a need to further expand validity and reliability evidence of the IBQ-Self in its use with other samples, and to show its specific psychometrically supported utility as a robust measure of pre-service teachers’ perceptions of their interpersonal behaviors in the PE context. This instrument will allow us to ascertain the potential antecedents of need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors to be used by pre-service PE teachers during their classroom practice, and by researchers seeking to better understand the possible outcomes derived from adopting need-supportive or need-thwarting behaviors in the PE lesson. Unlike in-service PE teachers, pre-service PE teachers communicate between the university and the school to transform theoretical into practical knowledge. This represents a good opportunity for them to become aware of the importance of their teaching behaviors in managing the classroom where they can effectively implement need-supportive behaviors without falling into need-thwarting practices. Indeed, PE teacher educators help pre-service teachers further improve the transformation of theoretical knowledge to practical advantage.

Present Research

Our objective with this research was to adapt the IBQ-Self to the Spanish PE teacher education context and to gather validity and reliability evidence for the adapted instrument when applied to a sample of pre-service PE teachers. To meet these objectives, we analyzed the internal structure of the IBQ-Self, the robustness of the six-factor correlated model, and the instrument’s measurement invariance across gender. In addition, we examined discriminant validity and reliability, Furthermore, using a structural equation model (SEM), we intended to provide evidence of the measure’s criterion validity by analyzing the predictive effects of pre-service PE teachers’ perceptions of need-based experiences on their own need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors. In line with the SDT assumptions (Ryan & Deci, 2017; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020), and following previous research conducted with in-service generalist teachers (Abós et al., 2018; Moè & Katz, 2022; Vermote et al., 2022), we hypothesized that pre-service PE teachers’ perceptions of need satisfaction would positively and significantly predict their need-supportive behaviors. Similarly, we expected that pre-service PE teachers’ perceptions of need frustration would positively and significantly predict their need-thwarting behaviors. We also hypothesized cross-relationships between need-based experiences and impersonal behaviors, such that need satisfaction would negatively predict need-thwarting behaviors, in the same ways as need frustration would negatively predict need-supportive behaviors in pre-service PE teachers.

Method

Ethical Considerations

This research protocol was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the University of Almeria (Ref: UALBIO2021/009). In addition, all participants, including those who took part in the pilot study, gave their written informed consent for the study.

Participants and Setting

Our participants in this study were a convenience sample of 419 pre-service PE teachers (203 women; 214 men; two other) from the professional master’s program of education at eight public universities. The age of the participants ranged from 21 to 61 years (M = 26.97; SD = 6.49). Pre-preservice PE teachers were eligible to participate if they were enrolled in in-person instruction at one of the eight programs and had previously completed their period of school placement. They were not eligible if they did not give consent to use their data in person or if they did not complete the data collection form.

For a better understanding of the Spanish setting of initial PE teacher education at the secondary level, it is important to detail that this education model occurs over five consecutive years in which PE teacher candidates must first complete a BSc degree in Exercise and Sport Sciences (i.e., specific knowledge studies during four full-time courses) followed by a professional master’s program in education (i.e., specific didactics and pedagogy studies during one full-time course). The master’s program is planned around three main modules: (a) a general module (at least 12 European Credits Transfer and Accumulation system [ECTS], equivalent to 120 teaching hours) consisting of educational theory, general principles of instruction, curriculum theory and classroom management; (b) a specific module (at least 24 ECTS, equivalent to 240 teaching hours) that includes PE content knowledge and PE pedagogical content knowledge, and (c) a school placement model (at least 16 ECTS, equivalent to 160 teaching hours) that includes a school-based experience as a teacher (practicum) and the master’s thesis. In the remaining eight ETCS (equivalent to 80 teaching hours), each university has the autonomy to distribute curricula content between general, specific, or optional courses (Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, 2007).

Adaptation of the Interpersonal Behaviors Questionnaire to Pre-Service Teachers

To adapt the IBQ-Self to the Spanish university context, we examined the original instrument by Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al. (2017) and the Spanish version adapted to Physical Education by Burgueño and Medina-Casaubón (2021). We then followed the adaptation strategies proposed by Bartram et al. (2018) that included: (a) back-translation, by which two translators translated the scale from English into Spanish and then two different translators translated the scale back from Spanish into English; (b) an equivalence test to verify the degree of agreement between the original version and the final version translated back from Spanish; (c) an adaptation of the Spanish version of the instrument from the general life domain to that of pre-service PE teachers by a panel of four experts; and (d) qualitative and individual analysis of the content of each item by four different experts who considered how representative the item was of the factor it was intended to measure, its relevance of the item to the target construct definition, and the clarity of the writing of the item. For these analyses, the expert judges gave ratings on a 5-point Likert scale; and, from the responses of each expert, a content validity index (CVI; Lynn, 1986) was calculated to indicate agreement between the experts, with values equal to .80 or higher considered suitable (Lynn, 1986). The CVI for the totality of cases was over .80 in representativeness (range = .82 to .91), relevance (range = .84 to .95) and clarity (range = .82 to .98). We conducted a pilot study on a group of students (pre-service PE teachers) from another university that was not participating in the research (n = 46). No content comprehension problems were detected in any of the 24 items that make up the instrument. Therefore, the scale adaptation process confirmed that there was test content validity.

Instruments

Interpersonal Behaviors

To measure pre-service PE teachers’ perceptions of their interpersonal behaviors, we used the Spanish-adapted version of the IBQ-Self (Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al., 2017). This instrument consists of 24 items distributed over six factors. Each item was preceded by the statement “When I am teaching in a school, I…).” The factors measured: autonomy-supportive behaviors (four items, e.g., “…support the choices that they make for themselves”); competence-supportive behaviors (four items, e.g., “…encourage them to improve their skills”); relatedness-supportive behaviors (four items, e.g., “…relate to them”); autonomy-thwarting behaviors (four items, e.g., “…impose my opinions on them”); competence-thwarting behaviors (four items, e.g., “…doubt their ability to improve”); and relatedness-thwarting behaviors (four items, e.g., “…do not connect with them”). The responses to each item were collected on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction in Education

The Spanish version adapted to the academic context (León et al., 2011) of the original version of the Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction measure (Gillet et al., 2008) was used to measure need satisfaction. The scale consists of 15 items divided into three factors of five items each: autonomy satisfaction (e.g., “I feel free to make decisions”), competence (e.g., “I have many opportunities to demonstrate what I am capable of”), and relatedness to others (e.g., “I feel comfortable with others”). Participants reported their agreement to each item using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). In this research, three-factor correlated model obtained a good fit: χ²/df = 4.49; CFI = .97; TLI = .97; SRMR = .034; RMSEA = .051 (90% CI = .045–.057), as well as good reliability scores for autonomy (α = .84, CR = .84, ω = .84), competence (α = .84; CR = .79; ω = .84) and relatedness (α = .81, CR = .83; ω = .82) satisfaction.

Basic Psychological Needs Frustration in Education

The Spanish version of the Psychological Need Thwarting Scale (Bartholomew et al., 2011) adapted to education (Cuevas et al., 2015) was used to measure need frustration. The instrument is preceded with the phrase “In my classes…” and followed by 12 items that measure autonomy (four items, e.g., “I feel pushed to behave in certain ways”), competence (four items, e.g., “There are situations where I am made to feel incompetent”), and relatedness (four items, e.g., “I feel that other people dislike me”) need frustration. Responses to each item were rated on a Likert scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). In this research, adequate goodness-fit indices were obtained for the three-factor correlated model: χ²/df = 4.87; CFI = .97; TLI = .95; SRMR = .035; RMSEA = .060 (90% CI = .054–.067); SRMR = .035. Good levels of reliability were found in autonomy (α = .79; CR = .80; ω = .80), competence (α = .78; CR = .79; ω = .79) and relatedness (α = .75; CR = .79; ω = .75) frustration.

Procedure

Prior to administering the instruments, the researchers contacted the academic directors of the professional master’s program of education at each Andalusian university to inform them of the study objectives and obtain authorization to administer the questionnaires. After obtaining permission, the research team contacted the teacher educators of the teacher education programs at each university to request their collaboration and to proceed with the classroom data collection. The instrument was administered at the end of the pre-service teachers’ 1-month school placement during the second semester of the 2020/2021 academic year. This was done via an online survey in which we briefly explained the importance of the research, the instructions for how to complete the measures, the anonymity of the responses, the voluntary nature of the participation, that participating or not would have no effect on their academic grades, and that they could stop participating at any time. Except for two people who decided not to participate, all the participants gave their informed consent before the study.

Statistical Analyses

As the online questionnaire did not allow participants to continue to complete it if any question had been left blank, there were no missing values in the data sample. Descriptive analyses of these data were carried out using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, v.28; IBM, Chicago, IL, USA), whereas the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and invariance tests were calculated using AMOS v.28. The six-factor correlated model was estimated using the maximum likelihood method with the 5000-sample bootstrapping technique, owing to a violation of the multivariate normality assumption (Mardia’s coefficient = 364.50, p < .001) (Kline, 2016). Assessment of the model’s fit was conducted by values as high as five in the chi-square fit index (χ²)/degree of freedom (df) ratio, greater than .90 in Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and lower than .080 in Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) (Hair et al., 2018; Kline, 2016). The standardized regression weights were minimally acceptable with values over .32 (Hair et al., 2018). The correlations between factors displayed a proper level of discriminant validity when the upper boundary of its 95% CI did not exceed 1.00 in absolute terms (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) (Henseler et al., 2015) was also estimated to provide additional evidence of discriminant validity. Values as high as .90 would display an acceptable level of discriminant validity (Henseler et al., 2015).

Invariance across gender was evaluated by multi-group CFA analysis following the methodological approach of Putnick and Bornstein (2016). This proposal tests four progressively more restrictive models: (a) configural invariance; (b) weak invariance (i.e., equal item factor loadings/cross-loadings); (c) strong invariance (i.e., equal item factor loadings/cross-loadings, and intercepts); and (d) strict invariance (i.e., equal item factor loadings/cross-loadings, intercepts, and error variances). The nested models were compared by considering changes (Δ) in goodness-of-fit measures (i.e., increases in the RMSEA of at least .015, or decreases in the CFI and TLI of at least .010 indicating a lack of invariance) (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016). Construct reliability was evaluated using the H coefficient, with values above .70 being acceptable and recommended for reliability from a SEM approach (Dominguez-Lara, 2017). Cronbach’s alpha (α), McDonald’s omega (ω), and Raykov’s composite reliability (CR) coefficients were also calculated, with values over .70 being acceptable (Dunn et al., 2014).

To provide criterion validity for the Spanish version of the IBQ, a SEM analysis was performed in accordance with the two-step approach (Kline, 2016). In the first step, the saturated model was evaluated by relating all the constructs to each other. The second step examined the predictive relationships of need satisfaction and frustration on need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors. As previous research has shown that the relationships between need-based experiences and interpersonal behaviors could depend on gender (Abós et al., 2018), the hypothesized relationships between variables were controlled for gender. In this case, the lack of multivariate normality (Mardia’s coefficient = 53.24; p < .001) also recommended the maximum-likelihood method using the bootstrapping procedure with 5000 re-samplings (Kline, 2016). To interpret the results, R² was used as a measure of the effect size, showing that values close to .02 reflected a small size, close to .13 a medium size, and greater than .26 a large size (Cohen, 1992).

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Reliability Analysis

As shown in Table 1, the mean scores of the three specific types of need-supportive behaviors were higher than those of the three specific subscales of need-thwarting behaviors. The internal consistency analysis showed acceptable values for all six types of interpersonal behaviors, although the competence-thwarting behaviors subscale presented some reliability values <.70 (i.e., α = .61; ω = .67; CR = .67).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics, Reliability Coefficients, and Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio of Correlations.

Variables	M	SD	Q1	Q2	α	ω	CR	H	AS	AT	CS	CT	RS	RT
Autonomy support (AS)	6.01	.79	−.89	.85	.76	.77	.77	.78	—	−.53	.70	−.37	.69	−.44
Autonomy thwarting (AT)	2.17	1.07	1.17	1.58	.72	.73	.72	.73		—	−.51	.89	−.46	.79
Competence support (CS)	6.65	.54	−2.51	9.33	.79	.79	.79	.79			—	−.63	.90	−.66
Competence thwarting (CT)	1.93	.98	1.72	3.98	.61	.67	.67	.71				—	−.54	.84
Relatedness support (RS)	6.52	.65	−2.08	6.59	.81	.82	.82	.82					—	−.70
Relatedness thwarting (RT)	1.58	.92	2.44	7.46	.70	.70	.72	.73						—

Note: **p < .01.

Q1 = skewness; Q2 = kurtosis; α = Cronbach’s alpha; ω = McDonald’s omega; CR = composite reliability; H = coefficient H.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The six-factor correlated model obtained acceptable fit indices: χ²/df = 4.66; CFI = .93; TLI = .92; SRMR = .038; RMSEA = .052 (90%CI = .049, .055, p-close = .124). Figure 1 displays that standardized factor loadings were significant (p < .001) and ranged from .35 to .78. Correlations among latent variables were between −.70 and .93.

Figure 1.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results for the Spanish Version of the IBQ-Self With Pre-Service Physical Education Teachers.

Following the postulates of the SDT, this research also tested the robustness of a hierarchical model composed of the global need-supportive behaviors factor (which includes the autonomy-supportive, competence-supportive and relatedness-supportive behaviors), and the global need-thwarting behaviors factor (which comprises the autonomy-thwarting, competence-thwarting and relatedness-thwarting behaviors). Adequate fit indices were also obtained: χ²/df = 4.66; CFI = .93; TLI = .92; SRMR = .043; RMSEA = .052 (90% CI = .049, .055, p-close = .119).

Invariance Analysis

Table 2 shows the goodness-of-fit measures for each of the different progressively restricted models. Specifically, there were only changes greater than .010 in the CFI and TLI and greater than .015 in the RMSEA between model 3 (strong invariance) and model 4 (strict invariance). Thus, configural invariance, weak invariance, and strong invariance were supported. In contrast, error variances were not invariant by gender. After analyzing the items, it was found that the fit problem presented in item 5 (i.e., Point out that they will likely fail) among the female sub-group. This led to the assumption of strict gender invariance for the IBQ-Self being rejected.

Table 2.

Invariance Tests Across Gender.

Model	χ ²	df	RMSEA [90% CI]	CFI	TLI	ΔRMSEA	ΔCFI	ΔTLI
1. Configural invariance	1470.53	474	.040 [.037; .042]	.911	.896	—	—	—
2. Weak invariance	1505.84	492	.039 [.037; .042]	.909	.898	−.001	−.002	.002
3. Strong invariance	1619.78	516	.040 [.038; .042]	.901	.894	.001	−.008	−.004
4. Strict invariance	2066.42	540	.046 [.044; .048]	.863	.860	.006	−.038	−.034

Note: χ² = chi-square; df = degree freedom; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval; CFI = comparative fit index; TLI = Tucker-Lewis index; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual.

Discriminant Validity

Evidence of discriminant validity was gathered with values that did not include the unit for the 95% CI of each of the correlations between the latent variables analyzed (Figure 1), as well as with HMTM values ranging from −.70 to .90 (Table 1). Therefore, each of the six factors comprising the IBQ-Self can be considered as having an adequate level of discriminant validity.

Criterion Validity

The SEM model results are presented in Figure 2. In step 1, the measurement model presented acceptable goodness-of-fit measures: χ²/df = 4.07, p < .001; CFI = .97; TLI = .95; SRMR = .047; RMSEA = .061 (90% CI = .055; .068). All the standardized regression weights were statistically significant and ranged from .64 to .86. The correlations between latent factors ranged from −.61 to .37. Taken together, these results provide evidence of the measurement model’s robustness.

Figure 2.

Predictive Effects of Need Satisfaction and Frustration on Need-Supportive and Need-Thwarting Behaviors in Pre-Service Physical Education Teachers.

In step 2, the predictive SEM model showed the same indices as in the previous step. The explained variance reached 12% for need-supportive behaviors and 16% for need-thwarting behaviors. After controlling for gender, need satisfaction positively predicted need-supportive behaviors (β = .33; p < .001), just as need frustration positively predicted need-thwarting behaviors (β = .38; p < .001). In addition, need satisfaction negatively predicted need-thwarting behaviors (β = −.09; p = .029), just as need frustration negatively predicted need-supportive behaviors (β = −.08; p = .049). Figure 2 shows the 95% CI of R², considering them as ES measurements (Dominguez-Lara, 2017); thus, need-supportive behaviors had a small ES and need-thwarting behaviors had a medium ES.

Discussion

Our aim in this study was to adapt into Spanish and then analyze the psychometric properties of IBQ-Self in the teacher education context, using a sample of pre-service PE teachers. Taken together, our results provided evidence supporting the validity and reliability of the IBQ-Self when evaluating pre-service PE teachers’ perceptions of their own interpersonal behaviors within the Spanish context.

Consistent with previous IBQ-Self research (Camiré et al., 2019; Rocchi, Pelletier, & Desmarais, 2017; Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al., 2017; Rodrigues et al., 2021), the results from the CFA underpinned the 24-item, six-factor correlated model assessing all types of interpersonal behaviors proposed in the IBQ-Self in Spanish pre-service PE teachers. Furthermore, all the standardized regression weights achieved a minimum value above .32, with each of them reaching a level of statistical significance, indicating that each item could robustly and adequately represent the latent variable being measured. In addition, a second CFA provided evidence in support of a hierarchical two-factor models grouping autonomy-supportive, competence-supportive and relatedness-supportive behaviors into need-supportive behaviors, and autonomy-thwarting competence-thwarting and relatedness-thwarting behaviors into need-thwarting behaviors. These results suggest that the instrument can be used both to measure each of the six specific types of interpersonal behaviors proposed separately and to measure the two overarching interpersonal behaviors (i.e., need-supportive and need thwarting behaviors). This last use can be useful when considering interpersonal behaviors within a more complex model aiming to ascertain potential antecedents and outcomes among pre-service PE teachers in their classroom practice.

The results from the multi-group analyses were partially aligned with previous IBQ-Self research (Rocchi, Pelletier, & Desmarais, 2017; Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al., 2017; Rodrigues et al., 2021), and were in line with the Camiré’s et al. (2019) study with coaches, in the sense that our findings supported configural, weak and strong invariance but rejected the assumption of strict invariance. According to previous research by psychometric specialists (Hair et al., 2018; Kline, 2016; Putnick & Bornstein, 2016), the existence of configural, weak and strong invariance supposes the minimum requirement that would allow the assumption of the instrument’s measurement invariance; thus, it could be used to compare the average scores obtained for the six latent factors between different groups (e.g., men and women pre-service teachers). However, it should be noted that other researchers pointed out the need to confirm strict invariance when making group comparisons (Wu et al., 2007). Since our results cannot categorically establish the instrument’s measurement invariance across gender, the possible mean differences of the six latent factors in the IBQ-Self between men and women pre-service teachers should be interpreted with caution.

Consistent with both the IBQ-Self validation study (Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al., 2017), and with the different instrument adaptations (Camiré et al., 2019; Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al., 2017; Rodrigues et al., 2021), our results of the correlations between latent factors where the 95% CI did not exceed the unit in any case, accompanied by HTMT values up to .90, support evidence of discriminant validity. As with previous research in PE students (Burgueño & Medina-Casaubón, 2021), it is worth highlighting the high values obtained for the correlations and HTMT between competence-supportive and relatedness behaviors, as well as between competence-thwarting and relatedness-thwarting behaviors. Although these values do not reflect a discriminant validity problem, the results do suggest that pre-service teachers see overlap in their use of competence-supportive and relatedness-supportive behaviors, possibly because they believe that providing useful information and positive feedback could, in turn, imply a socially supportive environment in the classroom. Similarly, these teachers found it difficult to differentiate the lack of classroom objectives (competence-thwarting behaviors) from the creation of a cold social environment in the classroom (relatedness-thwarting behaviors). On the other hand, the reliability analysis results were aligned with previous studies of the IBQ-Self (Camiré et al., 2019; Rocchi, Pelletier, Cheung, et al., 2017; Rodrigues et al., 2021), in the sense that values greater than .70 were obtained for all the variables comprising the instrument. Although it is worth highlighting the marginal value in the competence-thwarting behaviors subscale, this could be considered minimally acceptable if we take into account the small number of items that make up the dimension (four items) (Dunn et al., 2014).

In line with previous research conducted with in-service generalist teachers (Abós et al., 2018; Moè & Katz, 2022; Vermote et al., 2022), the SEM results showed that need satisfaction positively and significantly predicted need-supportive behaviors, and negatively predicted need-thwarting behaviors. A possible explanation might be that when pre-service PE teachers feel their BPNs are satisfied within their PE teacher education program, they tend to provide their students with opportunities for choice and initiative (autonomy-supportive behaviors), helpful information and valuable feedback (competence-supportive behaviors) and display positive relationships toward them (relatedness-supportive behaviors) during classroom practice. Further, pre-service PE teachers with their BPNs satisfied are apt to avoid need-thwarting behaviors as much as possible in their lessons. Similarly, we found that the pre-service teachers’ need frustration was positively related to need-thwarting behaviors, and negatively related to need-supportive behaviors. A possible justification for these behaviors rests on the likelihood that when pre-service PE teachers perceive their autonomy, competence and relatedness to be frustrated, they are more prone to use controlling language (autonomy-thwarting behaviors), highlight students’ mistakes (competence-thwarting behaviors) and display active dislike toward students (relatedness-thwarting behaviors) in their classroom practice. Our results provide empirical support for the dual process advocated by the SDT, explaining psychological functioning by distinguishing between a bright motivational pathway that includes need satisfaction and need-supportive behaviors and a dark motivational pathway that includes need frustration and need-thwarting behaviors (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

Implications for Teaching Practice

The Spanish version of the IBQ-Self for pre-service PE teachers will allow us to gain better insight into pre-service PE teachers’ need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors during their classroom practice. Thus, the instrument can be helpful to analyze the potential antecedents that lead pre-service PE teachers to adopt need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors in the classroom. Additionally, this new instrument can contribute to discover moment-to-moment and day-to-day shifts in the six types of interpersonal behaviors to help pre-service teachers move from need-supportive to need-thwarting behaviors) or move from need thwarting to need-supportive behaviors over a specific lesson or throughout their initial teacher education program. The Spanish IBQ-Self version will enable us to explore the potential affective, behavioral and cognitive outcomes derived from the use of need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors by pre-service PE teachers during classroom practice. The scale will also permit us to identify potential profiles in terms of need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors using person-oriented approaches. Lastly, the Spanish version of the IBQ-Self will help us explore how pre-service PE teachers’ implicit beliefs and ideals concerning need-supportive and need-thwarting teaching behaviors may evolve throughout their initial PE teacher education program (from the BSc. Exercise and Sport Sciences to the professional master’s program in education). This information will help us train pre-service PE teachers about benefits and risks that their own behaviors might have on them and their students in the PE lesson.

Limitations and Future Lines of Research

Among several limitations that should be mentioned is that we used a purposive sampling method, meaning that our results may not generalize to broader populations. Therefore, further studies are required to examine the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the IBQ-Self using other teacher samples with different characteristics (e.g., pre-service teachers in early-childhood or primary education, as well as in-service teachers at all educational stages). A second limitation is that we found partial invariance in error variances for this instrument with these pre-service PE teachers. More specifically, item 5 (i.e., “Point out that they will likely fail”) was not invariant by gender. Possibly, men and women pre-service PE teachers might understand the concept of “fail” in a different way. Previous investigators suggested that male pre-service PE teachers tended to emphasize student mistakes on the final results and how well students had completed the target task in comparison to other students, while female pre-service PE teachers were prone to emphasize mistakes in a student’s progression through classroom practice (Abós et al., 2018). Therefore, additional research is needed for new content wording of item five so that it works equally for both female and male pre-service teachers. Likewise, future studies need to expand evidence of IBQ-Self invariance using other demographic variables (e.g., age, the public or private nature of the education center). A third limitation is that we found marginal internal consistency for the competence-thwarting behaviors subscale. Future investigators might propose better content for test items on this factor to better capture the variable’s meaning. Fourth, we adopted a cross-sectional research design that limits our ability to infer causal relationships between interpersonal behaviors and need-based experiences. Accordingly, future studies might use longitudinal or experimental designs to analyze how need satisfaction and frustration influence the six types of interpersonal behaviors in pre-service PE teachers.

Conclusion

In this research, we gathered a range of evidence supporting the Spanish version of the IBQ-Self for pre-service PE teachers as a valid and reliable measure of the six specific types of interpersonal behaviors pre-service PE teachers use in the classroom. Our data also offer further evidence on the two more general categories of need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors. Indeed, both the six-factor correlated model and the hierarchical two-factor model for these constructs can be used interchangeably, depending on the purpose of the research. Finally, our study provides supportive evidence to conceptualize need-supportive behaviors and need-thwarting behaviors as distinct associated constructs.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was carried out thanks to the help received from the “I + D + i” research project entitled: “Is the empowering-disempowering motivational climate that undergraduate students perceive related to their intention to become teachers? A longitudinal study with teachers in training” (Ref. P20_00148), funded by the Andalusian Plan for Research, Development, and Innovation (PAIDI, 2020) of the Junta de Andalucía, Spain.

ORCID iDs

Rafael Burgueno

Antonio Granero-Gallegos

Author Biographies

Rafael Burgueño, PhD, former Margarita Salas postdoctoral researcher and current lecturer at the University of Almeria (Spain). His main research topic incudes examining the influence of (de-)motivating styles from the teacher on the students’ motivation and learning-related outcomes in physical education.

Meredith Rocchi, PhD, Assistant professor at the University of Ottawa (Canada). Her main research interests are to examine the influence of interpersonal communicative styles on motivation and health.

Antonio Granero-Gallegos, PhD, Assistant professor at the University of Almeria (Spain). His main research concerns are to analyze the impact of teacher behavior on students’ and teachers’ motivational process and learning-related outcomes in the context of physical education.

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