Abstract
Although many institutions of higher education have become committed to diversity and have made efforts to recruit faculty of color, the counseling profession has had a long history of underrepresentation of students and faculty of color. This study investigated the relationships between demographic characteristics, perceptions of the academic climate, and the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in accredited, rehabilitation counselor education (RCE) programs. Furthermore, this study aimed to identify which factors best predict the employment continuation plans for this population. Participants were administered the Faculty Retention Questionnaire (FRQ) to examine these relationships. The sample consisted of 63 tenure-track and tenured faculty of color employed by accredited RCE programs. A univariate general linear model found that the demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status) did not predict the employment continuation plans of tenure-track and tenured faculty of color in accredited RCE programs. Multiple linear regression analysis was utilized to determine if the regression scores for the perception of academic climate components (role as researcher, tenure/promotion opportunities, workplace conditions, social climate, faculty/student relationships, role clarity, inter-role conflict, and person/role conflict) predicted 28.5% of the variance in the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in RCE programs. Among these, inter-role conflict was the only statistically significant predictor. Findings add to the literature pertaining to the retention of faculty of color in counselor education and suggest retention strategies supportive of faculty of color.
The diversity of faculty in higher education has been the subject of debate, discussion, and priority for several decades. While numerous efforts have been implemented to diversify faculty ranks, persons of color continue to be underrepresented (Johnson et al., 2018; O. Taylor et al., 2010; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, 2011). Specifically, the counseling profession has had a long history of underrepresentation of students and faculty of color. In his study on the status of racial and ethnic faculty representation and hiring practices in counselor education, Young (1990) found that 90.6% of faculty in counselor education were European Americans. In a more recent study, Bradley and Holcomb-McCoy (2004) found that only 3.4% of counseling faculty at programs accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) programs identified themselves as African Americans. Although the number of African American counseling faculty at programs accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) has increased over the years, only 14.52% are African Americans compared to White faculty, who are 71.38%. It is worth noting that 0.7% are American Indian/Native Alaskan, 4.03% are Asian American, 4.77% are Hispanic/Latino/Spanish American, and 0.8% are Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs [CACREP], 2018). The shortage of racial and ethnic minorities has called for measures and policies designed to recruit and retain faculty of color in counselor education (Haizlip, 2012). This study aims to assess the relationships between demographic characteristics, perceptions of the academic climate, and the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in accredited, rehabilitation counselor education (RCE) programs in order to identify which factors best predict the employment continuation plans for this population.
Price et al. (2005) found that race, ethnicity, gender, and foreign-born status provoked stereotypes, bias, and disadvantages in the workplace, affecting faculty recruitment, promotion, and tenure. Furthermore, minority faculty also described structural barriers to success such as lack of mentorship, poor retention efforts, and cultural homogeneity that hindered their success and professional satisfaction after recruitment.
Many institutions struggle in developing new approaches and strategies for recruiting and retaining a diverse faculty (Hodo, 2009; Whetsel-Ribeau, 2007). Affirmative action laws have attempted to improve the statues of underrepresented groups in higher education; however, studies have shown that the proportion of faculty of color in higher education has not increased since the inception of those laws (Chait & Trower, 2002; Niemann & Divodio, 2005; Sabbagh, 2011). Through the hiring process, affirmative action programs provide a passage to achievement of campus diversity by obtaining a representation of underrepresented groups. However, affirmative action has had modest success in diversifying the faculty of institutions of higher education. Data have revealed that White women have had the most significant gain in hiring in higher education under affirmative action policies and due to backlash associated with the implementation of these policies, once-hired minorities have sometimes been faced with marginalization through the perception of tokenism (Evans & Chun, 2007). Niemann (2016) argued that tokenism in the academy has caused great damage to the careers of faculty of color. Niemann (2016) adds that through their experiences of tokenism, faculty of color lack professional supports, are often seen as “other,” experience excessive scrutiny from colleagues and students, and have an unspoken requirement to work harder to receive recognition and respect. In addition, faculty of color often have to engage in practices rooted in biculturism such as “code switching” to navigate academia (Harris & Tanksley, 2021).
Although many institutions of higher education have become committed to diversity and have made efforts to recruit faculty of color, faculty diversity initiatives have been noted as one of the least successful of all higher education diversity efforts (Jayakumar et al., 2009; Smith, 2009; Thompson, 2008). In their study of faculty of color in universities in the Midwest, C. S. Turner and Myers (2000) described institutions of higher education’s over-emphasis on recruitment strategies and lack of attention on retention strategies as one of the reasons universities and colleges have been unsuccessful in diversifying faculty. Although successful recruitment strategies are needed to diversify faculty, these efforts must be coupled with retention strategies. Reasons such as feelings of isolation, experiences of racism and discrimination, invisibility, devaluing of scholarship, and lack of mentors have been shown to contribute to the high attrition of faculty of color in higher education (Aguirre, 2000; Garrison-Wade et al., 2012; Laden & Hagedorn, 2000; Thompson, 2008; C. S. Turner & Myers, 2000). Similarly, even though an increasing number of women and minorities are earning doctorates, many are choosing careers outside of higher education or exiting the profession prior to being granted tenure due to the unwelcoming academic culture (Chait & Trower, 2002). Some of the common concerns noted by female and minority faculty members are lack of social acceptance, role clarity, limited opportunities to participate in the departmental and institutional decision-making, overburdened with “token” committee assignments, infrequent occasions to assume leadership positions or achieve institutional presence, and little guidance about the academic workplace and the tenure process (Chait & Trower, 2002; Kelly & McCann, 2014; C. S. Turner, 2000).
Aside from an unwelcoming and unsupportive climate, excessive pressures and demands from departmental colleagues, due to stereotypical assumptions, have been shown to affect job satisfaction and retention among faculty of color (Alexander-Snow & Johnson, 1998; Joseph & Hirshfield, 2011). Faculty of color are expected to perform in certain academic capacities, such as race-related research, advising and mentoring students of color, and teaching courses related to diversity, due to their ethno-racial group membership. It is a shared assumption among their White colleagues that faculty of color have more experience with these issues because they “live” race on a daily basis (Alexander-Snow & Johnson, 1998; Joseph & Hirshfield, 2011).
Researchers have attempted to identify and understand why faculty members leave or intend to leave higher education or their current institutions. C. J. Daley and Dee (2006) constructed a model to examine relationships between work environment, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions of urban university faculty. The researchers found that four structural variables—communication openness, role conflict, autonomy, and distributive justice—had a significant direct effect on faculty’s intent to stay within their institutions. Communication openness, or the extent to which an employee becomes integrated into the organization, was shown to have the largest total effect on the intent to stay. Katz and Kahn (1978) defined role conflict as “the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role expectations such that compliance with one would make compliance with the other more difficult” (p. 204). The demands and unclear expectations from university and department administrators may lead faculty of color to role conflict, which may cause them to leave their positions (Alexander-Snow & Johnson, 1998). Baldridge et al. (1973) defined faculty autonomy as “the ability of professionals to decide work patterns, to actively participate in major academic decision-making, to have work evaluated by professional peers, and to be relatively free of bureaucratic regulations and restrictions” (p. 5). Autonomy in the workplace fosters the need for achievement and accomplishment (A. Turner & Lawrence, 1965), thereby resulting in a more positive regard for the workplace and increased desire to stay (Spector, 1986). Distributive justice is defined as the perceived fairness of compensation. Faculty autonomy refers to the ability to actively participate decision-making, and the relative absence of bureaucracy (C. J. Daley & Dee, 2006).
Researchers have also explored how gender, country of origin, and tenure affect retention of faculty in higher education (Aguirre, 2000; Herzog, 2010; Howe, 2008). In spite of increases in college enrollment and graduation rates by women, they remain underrepresented in faculty roles. Women also tend to hold part-time, nontenure-track positions, and to work at less-prestigious institutions (Durodoye et al., 2020; Perna, 2001; Winslow & Davis, 2016). Among racial and ethnic minorities, African American faculty have been shown to be underrepresented in research universities and overrepresented in social sciences, education, and fine arts, and Hispanic/Latino faculty are most likely to be in humanities (Delgado-Romero et al., 2007; Lee, 2012). Tenure is associated with increased morale and satisfaction in faculty, thereby resulting in high faculty retention (Bataille & Brown, 2006; Hagedorn, 2000). In a study of 1,171 postsecondary faculty, tenure status was found to be a significant predictor of faculty retention. Similarly, being tenured was shown to be a significant and positive regressor of faculty retention (Herzog, 2010).
Despite concerns of the academic climate, a majority of minority faculty members chose to stay in their current positions. C. S. Turner and Myers (2000) concluded that the job satisfaction of faculty of color could be articulated into three themes: (a) satisfaction with teaching and working with students; (b) supportive administrative leadership, mentoring relationships, and collegiality; and (c) interaction with other faculty of color. Many faculty stressed that their genuine love of teaching and interactions with students were identified as the most rewarding and satisfying aspect of their careers in higher education for faculty of color. Some faculty stated that feelings of social isolation were so strong among White colleagues that they were more comfortable interacting socially with students of color (C. S. Turner & Myers, 2000). In Stanley’s (2006) study of the experiences of faculty of color teaching at predominantly White colleges and universities, collegial and mentoring relationships with White colleagues, such as collaborating on research projects, played a major factor in the success of faculty of color or their decision to leave their institutions. Jayakumar et al. (2009) studied the relationship between academic climate, job satisfaction, and intentions to leave, and found that faculty of color have higher job satisfaction when racial climate is welcoming. Faculty of color who report solo status in their departments have lower levels of job satisfaction than faculty of color who do not report solo status. Antonio (2003) proposed that racial diversity in the student body contributes to a positive campus climate and reduces isolation that may be experienced by faculty of color. Diversity in the student body also gives faculty of color a sense of membership in the academic community and provides opportunities for mentoring and role modeling.
Maki et al. (2003) noted that due to the continuing growth of RCE programs, RCEs have recognized the importance of diversity among rehabilitation practitioners and have found that having a diverse faculty is critical to the excellence in delivery of rehabilitation services (Cartwright et al., 2009). In 2015, CORE and CACREP merged giving RCE programs the option to become accredited in any of the following: (a) clinical mental health counseling; (b) clinical rehabilitation counseling; and (c) rehabilitation counseling. Among CACREP-accredited programs, Clinical Mental Health has the highest number of accredited programs (n = 328), while Clinical Rehabilitation Counseling is the third largest program with 77 accredited programs. In addition, despite research that has been conducted on the relationship between academic climate and retention plans of faculty of color, the literature pertaining to this issue in the counselor educator field remains underdeveloped.
Consequently, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between demographic characteristics, perceptions of the academic climate, and the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in accredited RCE programs by addressing the following research questions: RQ1: Do demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status) predict the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in accredited RCE programs? RQ2: Do perceptions of the academic climate (social climate, job satisfaction, faculty/student relationships, role clarity, and role conflict) predict the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in accredited RCE programs? The proposed study could potentially identify what factors affect the retention of faculty of color in RCE programs. By identifying and understanding the factors that affect the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in RCE, universities can seek ways to enhance retention of faculty of color.
Method
Participants
To establish a representative sample of faculty of color in RCE programs, the accessible population for this study was a census of 1,555 subscribers of the National Council on Rehabilitation Education (NCRE) Listserv for the 2014 to 2015 academic year. For the purpose of this study, faculty of color were defined as a faculty member who self-identifies as one of the minority race, ethnic categories, or both set forth by the United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB). The 1997 OMB requires that the U.S. Census Bureau use five minimum categories: White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander. The OMB permits the U.S. Census to use the some other race category (U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, 2020). The some other race category includes those who self-identify as multiracial, interracial, mixed, or one of the Hispanic or Latino groups. Ethnicity was separated into two categories: Hispanic or Latino and non-Hispanic or non-Latino.
All 1,555 NCRE subscribers who subscribe to the NCRE Listserv were sent a series of mailings via email. The inclusion criteria stated that participants must self-identify as a racial or ethnic minority or both as set forth by the United States OMB, currently employed by a CACREP-accredited masters’ level RCE program and tenured or employed in a tenure-track position status. Recruitment began with a prenotice letter that was distributed via email to every member subscribed to the NCRE Listserv. The prenotice letter notified participants that they would receive an important survey in the next few days. Participants were sent a cover letter (with a survey link enclosed in the letter) via email 3 days after the prenotice letter was distributed. In conjunction with the prenotice and cover letters, program directors of CORE/CACREP-accredited masters’ level RCE programs were contacted via telephone, using a standard telephone prompt, and using phone numbers from the CORE/CACREP Directory of Accredited Programs for the 2014–2015 academic year; at the time, 96 CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs were listed. The cover letter and telephone prompt contained the purpose of the study, an explanation of the internet-based study instrument, and a request for participation. Participants who did not request to opt out of the survey also received three reminder letters via email based on the initial response. The reminder letters contained a request for participation, purpose, and importance of the study, and confidentiality statements. Of the 1,555 NCRE Listserv members invited to participate in the study, 299 accessed the survey. Only 79 participates met the inclusion criteria for the study and completed the survey. Of those surveys, 16 were unusable due to incomplete responses, yielding in 63 usable surveys and resulting in 4% of the population participating in the study.
The participants in this study were tenured and tenure-track faculty of color who are employed in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. The sample consisted of 63 participants, 45 females, and 18 males (see Table 1). The majority of participants self-identified as African American (n = 48). The second largest group was races other than Asian or White-Hispanics or African American-Hispanics (n = 6; 9.5%). The largest percentage of participants was born in the United States (85.7%). In terms of tenure status, participants were roughly evenly split between tenure-track and tenured faculty (n = 33, 52.4% vs. n = 30, 47.6%).
Demographic Characteristics of Participants in Study on Faculty Retention.
White refers to White-Hispanics.
Measures
The Faculty Retention Questionnaire (FRQ) is a 15-minute-long, web-based, self-administered questionnaire (Whetsel-Ribeau, 2007). The instrument has four parts: (a) Part 1 measures job satisfaction, social climate, and faculty/student relationships (the sample items include: The physical conditions in my work environment are satisfactory, There are financial opportunities available to me to conduct my research, My university provides opportunities for the publication of my works); (b) Part 2 measures role conflict and role clarity (Sample items include: I have clear, planned goals and objectives for my job, I am required to do things in a certain way that I would not choose); (c) Part 3 addresses employment values and intentions to stay in current position (sample items include: salary, mentoring; within each timeframe, what is the likelihood of you staying in your current position); and (d) Part 4 addresses demographic information (sample items include: racial/ethnic background, gender; Whetsel-Ribeau, 2007). Whetsel-Ribeau (2007) assembled the FRQ from two previously developed instruments. The Academic Setting Evaluation Questionnaire (ASEQ; Fernandez & Matteo, 1993) is reflected in Part 1 of the FRQ. Part 1 of the FRQ contains 31 items from the ASEQ that assess faculty satisfaction with the work environment, social climate, and relationships with students by utilizing a 7-point Likert-type scale with 1 as the lowest level and 7 as the highest level of agreement. Part 2 of the FRQ reflects the Role Conflict/Role Ambiguity Questionnaire (RC/RAQ; Rizzo et al., 1970) using 14 items from that instrument to measure the role conflict and role ambiguity of individuals in an organization. A higher score obtained for these factors indicated role clarity, where a lower score indicated role ambiguity. A 7-point Likert-type scale was applied with 1 as definitely not true of my job and 7 as extremely true of my job. Part 3 of the FRQ uses multiple choice and open-ended responses to measure employment values and intentions to stay in current position, and Part 4 assesses demographic information. Cronbach alpha coefficients of reliability was 0.89 for job satisfaction and social climate scores, 0.87 for faculty/student relationships scores (Fernandez & Matteo, 1993), 0.88 for role conflict scores and 0.73 for role ambiguity scores (Rizzo et al., 1970) and 0.90 for total reliability. Retention was measured by calculating the employment continuation plan as described by Whetsel-Ribeau (2007), based on responses to the question, “within each timeframe, what is the likelihood of you staying in your current position.” In response to the question “within each timeframe, what is the likelihood of you staying in your current position?” participants were asked to provide how likely they are to stay during each of the four timeframes: (a)1 year, (b) 2–3 years, (c) 4–6 years, (d) over 6 years, on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strong likelihood of leaving, 2 = likelihood of leaving, 3 = unsure, 4 = likely to stay, 5 = strong likelihood of staying; options representing the likelihood of staying). The Employment Continuation Index was calculated using the formula, Retention = a+ 2 (b) + 3(c) + 4(d) as used in Whetsel-Ribeau’s (2007) study of retention plans of faculty of color in Ohio public colleges and universities. Retention scores ranged from 1 to 50, with a high score indicating a strong likelihood of staying in the current position and a low score indicating a strong likelihood of leaving. The mean retention score was 30.73 in this study. Content validity for the FRQ was established through consultation with five content experts as well as three structure experts (Whetsel-Ribeau, 2007).
Procedure
Institutional review board approval was obtained from Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Permission was obtained from the NCRE Research Committee and the instrument developer. The web-based, self-administrated survey was placed on the University’s server utilizing Limesurvey, a highly recommended online survey generator program (Engard, 2009). The survey was available 24 hours a day/7 days a week. The survey had mandatory questions that could not be left unanswered. In addition, to protect confidentiality and to prevent double filing, participants were given a token code via email in order to access the survey.
A cover letter and a link to the survey was sent electronically to each NCRE member who subscribes to the organization’s Listserv. In order to access the survey, participants were presented with screening questions, and then a registration screen. The inclusion criteria stated that participants must be of racial and/or ethnic minority background, currently employed by a CORE/CACREP-accredited masters’ level RCE program, and tenured or employed in a tenure-track position status. Members who met the inclusion criteria were taken to a registration screen. If they did not meet the inclusion criteria, the survey closed, and they were directed to a debriefing screen that explained the exclusions of the study.
On the registration screen, the participants were asked to enter their name and email address, after which they received a token via email. Upon entering the token code, participants were administered the FRQ. Names and email addresses were not connected to responses. Completion of the survey was monitored daily. Based on the literature, remainder contacts are the most efficient technique for increasing response rate in both mail and web-based surveys (Dillman et al., 2009; Van Selm & Jankowski, 2006). As suggested by Dillman et al. (2009), follow-up emails were sent based on the initial response rate. Each participant who had not yet completed the survey received three follow-up emails weekly, after the original email was sent, unless they opted out of the survey. At the completion of the survey, participants were sent an email of confirmation thanking them for their participation in the study. Data were collected between October 14, 2014, and March 16, 2015. After the completion of the survey, participants had the option to enter their email addresses into a lottery to win one of four $25 Amazon gift cards.
Data Analysis
A general linear model was used to determine how the predictor variables of race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status relate to the outcome variable, employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Statistical analyses for this study were performed using SPSS 23.
The FRQ was reduced using principle component analysis (PCA) with a promax rotation prior to conducting the multiple linear regression analysis. PCA was used to reduce the variables in the FRQ to components to be used in further analysis. There were high correlations between the variables in each set, which indicated that PCA was appropriate. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) was examined to determine the factorability of the correlation matrix for each scale. The KMO is the degree of common variance among the variables. Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) recommended a KMO value above 0.60. The KMO for the components were as follows: 0.86 for the job satisfaction items, 0.86 for social climate, 0.85 for faculty/student relationships, 0.81 for role clarity, and 0.78 for role conflict. These values indicated that the common variance between the variables in each set of the subscales was middling to meritorious, and if a factor analysis were conducted, the factors extracted would account for a substantial amount of the total variance (Kaiser, 1974). Eigenvalues and scree plots were used in making the decision on how many components to extract in the final solution. For example, the job satisfaction subscale contained 19 items; three components were specified to be extracted from the set of items. For job satisfaction, component 1 was labeled “tenure/promotion opportunities”; the second component was labeled “role as researcher”; and the third component was labeled “workplace conditions.” The PCA extracted one component from each of the subscales that measured social climate, faculty/student relationships, and role clarity. The PCA with promax rotation yielded two components from the eight items that measured role conflict. Component 1 was labeled “inter-role conflict” because it reflected items related to the inter-role conflict definition set forth by Katz and Kahn (1978). This second component was labeled “person/role conflict” due to its reflection of items related to the definition of person/role conflict. The components extracted by the PCA were saved as regression scores. The variables consisted by the components included: Level of Job Satisfaction, Social Climate, Faculty/Student Relationships, Role Clarity, Inter-role Conflict, Person/role Conflict, Tenure/promotion opportunities, Role as Researcher, and Workplace Conditions. Subsequently, the regression scores were used as predictor variables in the multiple linear regression. To address research question 1, the predictor variables were race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status. These categorical variables were dummy coded to transform them into dichotomous variables (A. Taylor, 2011). The predictor variables for research question 2, Job Satisfaction, Social Climate, Faculty/Student Relationships, Role Clarity, Person/role Conflict, Inter-role Conflict, Tenure/promotion opportunities, Role as Researcher, and Workplace Conditions, were all entered simultaneously.
Due to the small sample size of 63 participants and the assumption of normality not being met, in order to avoid bias and reduce the probability of making a Type I or Type II error, the statistical method of bootstrapping was used to resample the data. The bootstrap method involves having a computer program generate a series of data sets that are designed to resemble the ones that would be observed if the estimation study was repeated many times (Efron & Tibshirani, 1993; Field, 2013; Shrout & Bolger, 2002). A bootstrap hypothesis test proceeds by constructing a sampling distribution for the test statistic. Case resampling, in which regression models are bootstrapped by treating the predictor variables as random and selecting the bootstrap samples directly from the observation was used in this study (Fox, 2002, 2008). SPSS version 23 was used to create bootstrap samples and statistical analyses using bootstrapped samples are based on 1,000 samples.
Results
A general linear model was used to assess whether the demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status) could predict the Employment Continuation Plans (Retention) of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs (Research Question 1). Results revealed that none of the demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status) predicted employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs (see Table 2). A univariate general linear model was conducted to investigate the relationship between the predictor variables and the outcome variable, Retention. The predictors were all categorical variables (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status). The bootstrapped general linear model analysis yielded a nonsignificant regression model, F(12, 62) = 1.15, p = .35. Table 2 presents the regression analysis. Effect size for the analysis was calculated using the formula f 2 = R2/1–R2. Cohen’s f 2 value was .03 indicating a small effect size, thus the relationship between the demographic characteristics and the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs was small and not practically significant.
Results of Regression Analysis Research Question 1.
Note. LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
A multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine if perceptions of the academic climate (social climate, job satisfaction, faculty/student relationships, role clarity, role conflict, tenure/promotion opportunities, role as researcher, workplace conditions; Field, 2013) could predict the Employment Continuation Plans (Retention) of faculty of color in CACREP-accredited RCE programs (Research Question 2, see Table 3). Multicollinearity was assessed by two statistical tests: Tolerance and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF; Cohen, 1988). Examination of the tolerance and VIF values revealed that multicollinearity was not present among aforementioned variables of social climate (VIF ranged from 1.34 to 2.24; Tolerance ranged from 0.42 to 0.75). Results showed that the linear combination of regression scores significantly predicted the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Results of the regression were significant, [R2 = .285, F(9, 53) = 3.74, p = .001], indicating that 28.5% of the variance in the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in RCE programs was predicted by the linear combination of the regression scores. The “inter-role conflict” regression score, B = −3.65 (confidence interval [CI]: [−7.02, 0.05], p = .04), was the only statistically significant predictor of the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in RCE programs. Finally, Cohen’s conventions for effect size were applied to the regression model. Cohen’s f 2 value was .63 indicating a large effect size, suggesting the association between the predictor variables (social climate, job satisfaction, faculty/student relationships, role clarity, role conflict, tenure/promotion opportunities, role as researcher, workplace conditions) and the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs was strong.
Results of Regression Analysis Research Question 2.
Note. LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
Discussion
A general linear model analysis revealed that the demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status) did not predict employment continuation plans of 63 tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. A multiple linear regression analysis found that the linear combination of social climate scores consisted of Level of Job Satisfaction, Social Climate, Faculty/Student Relationships, Role Clarity, Inter-role Conflict, Person/role Conflict, Tenure/promotion opportunities, Role as Researcher, and Workplace Conditions significantly predicted the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Inter-role conflict was found to be a significant predictor of the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs.
Researchers in higher education have stressed the importance of examining individual characteristics when studying faculty’s intentions to leave or stay in their current position. Historically, women and minorities have been shown to be underrepresented in certain disciplines and institutions, employed in lower academic ranks, have lower salaries, are less likely to be tenured, promoted at a slower rate than Whites and males, and have been subjected to racism, sexism, discrimination, and differential treatment, which have led to the attrition of minority and women faculty in the academy (Absher, 2007; Durodoye et al., 2020; Holcomb-McCoy & Bradley, 2003; Lee, 2012; Thompson, 2008; C. S. Turner, 2000; C. S. Turner & Myers, 2000). Contrary to what is in the literature, this study did not find that demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status) predicted the employment continuation plans in a small sample of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. These results were inconsistent with the existing literature that demographic characteristics predict the retention of faculty in higher education (Bruce, 2011; Rosser, 2004). The nonsignificant results in this study could be attributed to the small sample size as Wilson VanVoorhis and Morgan (2007) recommended an absolute minimum of 10 participants per variable to achieve a medium effect size for statistical tests that assess relationships between six or more predictor variables. Cohen (1992) proposed a power of .80 for general use. For the current sample size, the power is below 0.80 (to reach the power of 0.80, a sample of 153 is needed when effect size is medium). Future studies may wish to recruit a larger sample of minority faculties from diverse disciplines.
Research question 2 sought to determine if perceptions of the academic climate (social climate, job satisfaction, faculty/student relationships, role clarity, and role conflict) could predict the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. The results of the multiple linear regression indicated that the linear combination of the regression scores successfully predicted 28.5% of the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Inter-role conflict was the only negative significant predictor of the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Inter-role conflict occurs when there are incompatibilities between two or more roles held by the same person (Katz & Kahn, 1978). This suggests that social climate, job satisfaction, faculty/student relationships, and role clarity positively predicted, while role conflict negatively predicted employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color.
Salary, role conflict, and not having a mentor were identified as the top three reasons for leaving their current position. Salary was identified by 39.7% as their number one reason for leaving their current position. Further examination of the role conflict data showed that 20.6% of participants named role conflict as their number 2 reason to leave their current position. Katz and Kahn (1978) defined role conflict as “the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role expectations such that compliance with one would make compliance with the other more difficult” (p. 204).
These findings are reflective of those noted by C. J. Daley and Dee (2006). The researchers found that role conflict had a negative effect on intentions to stay in their position among faculty in urban public universities. Role conflict had substantial negative impact on job satisfaction and communication openness, which were associated with reduced intentions to stay (C. J. Daley & Dee, 2006). In addition, role conflict was shown to influence the retention plans of tenured faculty of color, who reported higher levels of role conflict than nontenured faculty of color. As a result of role conflict, tenured faculty of color expressed an increased intent to leave as time in their position increased (Whetsel-Ribeau, 2007). Existing literature has suggested that role conflict has a negative impact on not only the individual, but their organizations as well (C. J. Daley & Dee, 2006; Holcomb-McCoy & Bradley, 2003; Lee, 2012; Ponjuan, 2011; Thompson, 2008; C. S. Turner & Myers, 2000; Whetsel-Ribeau, 2007). Increased levels of role conflict have been linked to higher levels of occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, and lower levels of job satisfaction, productivity, and personal accomplishments (C. J. Daley & Dee, 2006; Ghorpade et al., 2011; Ponjuan, 2011; Rizzo et al., 1970; Whetsel-Ribeau, 2007). In order to avoid these negative consequences in RCE programs and to create an academic climate where faculty of color can be successful, strategies to reduce role conflict are essential.
Balancing the activities of research, teaching, and service can be challenging for all faculty in higher education; however, faculty of color may have difficulties balancing these activities as they often have additional expectations due to their race/ethnicity (Laden & Hagedorn, 2000). Faculty of color are expected to perform in institutional roles in pursuit of diversity on their campuses, such as service on committees dealing with diversity, mentoring and advising students of color, and teaching diversity-related courses (Holcomb-McCoy & Bradley, 2003; Joseph & Hirshfield, 2011; Stanley, 2006). These activities also leave little time for research activities and are devalued by administrators during the tenure and promotion process. Being overburdened with these expectations may cause faculty of color to leave their institutions (Aguirre, 2000; Holcomb-McCoy & Bradley, 2003; Joseph & Hirshfield, 2011; Stanley, 2006; Thompson, 2008). Workplace burden was not measured by FRQ. In addition, our study did not find that Role Clarity predicted employment continuation plans of faculty of color, therefore future research may be needed in this area.
In addition to the concept of cultural taxation, faculty of color often have to face the constant pressure of being pulled between “two worlds,” their own minority cultural background and the dominant culture within the academic community. In order to be successful in higher education, faculty of color often adapt to biculturation or “code switching,” which involves applying parts of their separate value systems into situations as applicable. These practices can also have negative effects as navigating between these two cultures can lead to occupational stress (Diggs et al., 2009; Harris & Tanksley, 2021; Sadao, 2003). Futhermore, faculty of color are expected to adjust to the dominant culture.
Conclusion
This study did not find that demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, gender, country of origin, and tenure status) predicted the employment continuation plans in a small sample of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Perceptions of the academic climate (social climate, job satisfaction, faculty/student relationships, role clarity, and role conflict) predicted the employment continuation plans of tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Salary, role conflict, and not having a mentor were identified as the top three reasons for leaving their current position.
Limitations
The study’s primary limitation was the small sample size, which did not meet the recommended minimum of 153 with a medium effect size. Future studies should be conducted using a more robust sample. Moreover, this study was limited to tenured and tenure-track faculty of color at CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. The examination of only tenured and tenure-track faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs decreases the generalizability of the study. In addition, due to the research design of this study, it is not possible to imply cause and effect of the variables (Creswell, 2006), nor does it allow for sequential prediction of the relationship between variables.
Future Research
Because this study only included minority faculty from RCE programs, future studies may replicate the study with faculty in disciplines other than RCE programs, such as STEM programs, as well as faculty in a nontenure track. Expanding the demographic characteristics to include questions on sexual orientation, age, marital and family status, and institution type (predominately White institutions vs. minority serving institutions), as well as the type of institution (public vs. private, research vs. teaching universities) would also be valuable. Findings from this study revealed that inter-role conflict is a significant predictor of the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Role conflict has been shown to have negative individual and organizational consequences (Ghorpade et al., 2011; Rizzo et al., 1970). In order to avoid these consequences among faculty of color in RCE programs, future studies should explore the mental, physical, and professional impact of role conflict. Future studies should also utilize alternative instruments or questions that may generate a more in-depth investigation of role conflict. Qualitative methods may be used in future studies to better describe inter-role conflict and employment continuation among faculty of color in RCE programs (Stanley, 2006).
Implications
In order to create and maintain faculty ranks that better reflects the diversity in the general population, academic climate change is needed. The most effective strategy in creating an institutional cultural shift where diverse groups have increased representation in faculty ranks is the development and implementation of retention policies. Findings from this study can assist university administrators and RCE department administrators in creating these policies. Although it is vital that the entire academic community is actively engaged in transforming the existing academic climate into one that is more receptive to diversity, equity, and inclusion, university and departmental administrators serve as key agents in creating and maintaining a more inclusive environment.
In order to create inclusive retention policies, university and departmental administrators must first examine their own worldview of diversity and have obtained adequate diversity, equity, and inclusion training. This is extremely critical for department administrators as they are central figures in addressing departmental climate, inclusion, and support for faculty (Ponjuan, 2011). Conducting campus climate assessments is a necessary first step in creating a welcoming academic climate. These assessments allow departments to identify strengths and weaknesses related to inclusion in their departments, and aid in creating and maintaining a welcoming academic climate. These assessments are often conducted through surveys, individual interviews, and focus groups (Guenter-Schlesinger & Ojikutu, 2009). In addition, existing policies and procedures must be examined to ensure that these policies promote equity, diversity, and inclusion (Ponjuan, 2011).
This study revealed that inter-role conflict is a significant predictor of the employment continuation plans of faculty of color in CORE/CACREP-accredited RCE programs. Research has shown that faculty of color often perform in multiple, conflicting roles, have heavy advising and teaching loads, and are overburdened with service commitments (Alexander-Snow & Johnson, 1998; Harley, 2001; Stanley, 2006; C. S. Turner & Myers, 2000). Given that role conflict is often caused by heavy workloads among faculty of color (e.g., heavy advising students of color and teaching loads), establishing a collaborative work climate with reasonable workloads assigned to minority faculty is crucial for minimizing role conflicts and improving retention of minority faculty. In order to better assist faculty of color in minimizing or preventing role conflict and role ambiguity, department administrators, chairs and supervisors must clarify role expectations for faculty of color and provide adequate support services to support the teaching and research activities of faculty of color (Cox, 2008; Hodo, 2009; Ponjuan, 2011). Researchers have also revealed that faculty of color often lose their personal identity and abandon career desires and goals due to expectations and stereotypes (Alexander & Moore, 2008). Mandatory departmental diversity and cultural competence training for all faculty members would be valuable in addressing the importance of faculty of color, their contribution to their department and institution, and educating faculty on diverse cultural backgrounds. Mentoring opportunities are the most viable resource in retaining faculty of color as they are helpful in assisting junior faculty navigate through the tenure and promotion process, department socialization, and developing a research agenda (Cox, 2008; Koch & Telzrow, 2002). Researchers suggest that department administrators should develop and offer cross-cultural mentoring, mentoring across departments and institutions and stronger incentives to senior faculty who serve as mentors and research collaborators (Koch & Telzrow, 2002; Ponjuan, 2011; Thompson, 2008). In addition, professional development programs, such as workshops on goal setting, stress management, grant writing resources, campus resources, curriculum development, and conflict resolution, led to increased retention rates in faculty of color (S. Daley et al., 2006; Guenter-Schlesinger & Ojikutu, 2009; Piercy et al., 2005). Moreover, departments should provide adequate funding to attend professional development activities that allow for socialization and networking as well as resources to build their knowledge bases, skills, and behaviors that may contribute to their success in higher education (Dancy & Brown, 2011; Rosser, 2004; Stanley, 2006).
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.