Dyeing mechanism and photodegradation kinetics of gardenia yellow natural colorant

Abstract

In this study, gardenia yellow solution is used to dye 100% cotton fabric. The dyeing rate curve and adsorption isotherms were recorded to explore the thermodynamic model and to calculate the corresponding parameters. A definite concentration of gardenia yellow solution was placed under the xenon arc lamp for irradiation to test its photodegradability. Absorbance of the solution was measured at different degradation times and the corresponding varying curve of the absorbance was drawn to explore the photodegradation reaction order of the natural colorant and consistent parameters were calculated. The experimental results proved that the dyeing of cotton fabric with gardenia yellow colorant followed the pseudo second order kinetic model whereas adsorption isotherm followed the Langmuir model and the photodegradation process followed the second order kinetic model. Values of different parameters were calculated: reaction rate constant k = 2.26 × 10^–3 (mg · L⁻¹)^1−m h⁻¹, the correlation coefficient R² = 0.994, and half decay time t_1/2 = 5.82 h.

Keywords

gardenia yellow kinetics thermodynamics photodegradation

Plant dyestuffs are in the spotlight owing to environmental protection awareness and rising health issues generated by the synthetic colorants.^1–6 Scientists working in the field of natural colorant technology are now focusing on improving the extraction of colorants from plant materials and their application onto fabrics.^7–11 Preference of natural colorants over synthetic counterparts is due to environment friendly processing, increased sustainability, renewable resources, reduced pollution, and green chemistry, amongst others.^12–16 Gardenia yellow is a natural dye that has been widely utilized for dyeing purposes due to its elegant color and exceptional performance.^17,18 For many years, due to its anti-cancer and anti-oxidant properties, it has been used in Chinese medicine for the treatment of jaundice and angina pectoris. Its non-toxic property makes it a potential candidate for applications in food dyeing.¹⁹ The application of this natural dye in functional textiles is constrained because it is vulnerable to photo-oxidation fading. Dyeing processes by chemical dyes have been mentioned in the literature, but there is very little knowledge about the dyeing mechanism of natural dyes. Gardenia yellow is composed of different constituents such as crocin, crocetin, polyphenolic flavonoids (e.g. rutin and quercetin), various terpenoids, and chlorogenic acid, along with many other compounds.^20–26The major coloring components of gardenia yellow are crocin and crocetin (Figure 1).^27–29 Crocin is a glycosidic derivative of crocetin containing β-D-gentiobiosyl and/or β-D-glucosyl moieties.^20,23 Gardenia yellow is an orange-yellow powder which is soluble in water at room temperature,²⁹ and its solution is transparent having a maximum absorption wavelength of 442 nm.^23,30 Double bonds in the molecular structure of crocetin isomerize easily under the influence of sunlight owing to its transformation into cis and decrease in stability.²³ This decline in the stability results in photodegradation which ultimately reduces the light fastness characteristics of gardenia yellow. A few researchers have already studied dyeing with gardenia yellow on silk,³¹ wool,³² modified and unmodified cotton,³³ and TiO₂ thin films.³⁴ However, our study is focused on the dyeing mechanism and photodegradation kinetics.

Figure 1.

Chemical structures of main coloring components of gardenia yellow.

In this work, cotton fabric was dyed with gardenia yellow dye, and the dyeing rate curves and adsorption isotherms under different variations were then studied. Gardenia yellow dye was subjected to light irradiation (xenon arc lamp as the source of light) for different time intervals to observe photodegradation characteristics and absorbance.³⁵ Reaction order of the photodegradation was examined, and linear regression equations with corresponding parameters were evaluated. Finally, the physicochemical properties of mordant and photocatalytic degradation kinetics of gardenia yellow colorant using the dynamic rate equation were observed. The thermodynamic adsorption model, reaction order, reaction rate constants and other aspects providing relevant theoretical basis for gardenia yellow colorant’s dyeing properties and its photostability have been discussed.^36–39

Experimental procedures

Materials

In this study, commercially bleached 100% woven cotton fabric (weight = 168 g/m², fabric construction = 70 ends per inch × 41 picks per inch/18 Ne (warp yarn count) × 15 Ne (weft yarn count)) was used. Aluminum sulfate (mordant) was obtained from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. Commercial gardenia yellow colorant was obtained from Mysunbio Co., Ltd, China and used without further purification.

Instruments

The TP-A500 electronic balance (HZ and Huazhi) was used for weighing different materials during this study. The L-24A Rapid dyeing machine (Xiamen Rapid Co., Ltd) and the TU-1901 ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer (Persee Co., Ltd) were used to dye the fabric and to measure the absorbance values, respectively.

Methods

UV-Vis spectra and calibration curve

Dye solution having the concentration 0.160 g/L was diluted to double volume to record the absorbance value using the UV-Vis spectrophotometer.⁴⁰ The calibration curve was constructed using dye solution in the different concentrations (0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.08, and 0.1 g/L) versus the absorbance of dye solution recorded at maximum wavelength.

Kinetic studies

The pretreated (bleached) woven cotton (100%) fabric was placed in the drying chamber for 48 h to remove the moisture content (approximately 8.5%). Subsequently, the fabric was cut into 12 pieces (0.3 g each). Three sets of 12 dyeing solutions (80 mg/L), according to the liquor ratio (1:200) were adjusted on three dyeing machines (as shown in Figure 2) for 15 min to achieve the desired temperatures (first set of solutions at 60℃, second set at 70℃, and third set at 80℃). The 0.3-g cotton samples were dipped in 60 mL of each gardenia yellow dyeing solution according to the liquor ratio (1:200) as shown in Figure 2 and aluminum sulfate (1 g/L) was added as meta-mordant. The cotton fabric samples were removed from their respective flasks after specific intervals: 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 180, and 240 min. The timeline of the dyeing process is shown in Figure 3. Furthermore, the raffinate’s absorbance (absorbance of the residual dyeing solution) and adsorptive capacity of dyestuff on cotton fabric were calculated.

Figure 2.

Assembly of dyeing flasks adjusted on dyeing machine during the investigation of dyeing kinetics.

Figure 3.

Dyeing process curve.

The quantity of adsorption capacity of unit mass cotton fabric was determined using the following equation³⁴

q_{t} = \frac{(C_{0} - C_{t}) \times V}{M}

(1)

where q_t is quantity of adsorption capacity of unit mass cotton fabric; C₀ and C_t are the initial and final concentrations of dye in the solution respectively; V is volume of dye bath; and M is weight of fabric.

1stOpt software was used to draw the dyeing rate curve by following three models: pseudo first order kinetic model, pseudo second order kinetic model and Weber–Morris interior diffusion model. The equations of the three models are as follows

Pseudo first order kinetic model:⁴¹

q_{t} = q_{e} (1 - e^{- k_{1} t})

(2)

Pseudo second order kinetic model:⁴²

q_{t} = \frac{k_{2} q_{e}^{2} t}{1 + k_{2} q_{e} t}

(3)

Weber–Morris interior diffusion model:⁴³

q_{t} = k_{i} t^{0.5} + c

(4)

where k₁, k₂, k_i are the constants of each kinetic reaction rate model, respectively; q_e is the equilibrium adsorption capacity calculated for each model; c is the adsorption constant of the Weber–Morris interior diffusion model; and t is time. This research work specified the best model to calculate the half-dyeing time.

Adsorption isotherm

For the investigation of adsorption isotherm, dye solutions were prepared in 10 different concentrations (30, 50, 70, 90, 110, 130, 150, 170, 190, and 210 mg/L). Three different sets of these solutions (60 mL according to liquor ratio 1:200 for 0.3 g sample) were made and adjusted on the dyeing machine (as shown in Figure 2) for 15 min to achieve the desired temperatures of 60℃ for the first set, 70℃ for the second set, and 80℃ for the third set of solutions. The pretreated (bleached and dried) woven cotton (100%) fabric sample (0.3 g) was dipped in each 60 mL gardenia yellow dyeing solution and aluminum sulfate (1 g/L) was added as meta-mordant. After 4 h, the cotton samples were taken out and the raffinate’s absorbance (absorbance of the residual dyeing solution) and adsorptive capacity of dyestuff on cotton fabric were calculated.

Fitting of the adsorption isotherm curve was measured by 1stOpt software. Three fitting models, namely Nernst, Langmuir, and Freundlich models, were applied. The equations for these three models are as follows^44,45

Nernst model:

q_{e} = {kC}_{e}

(5)

Langmuir:

q_{e} = \frac{Q_{max} K_{L} C_{e}}{1 + K_{L} C_{e}}

(6)

Freundlich:

q_{e} = K_{F} C_{e}^{T}

(7)

where C_e represents the equilibrium constant concentrations; k, K_L, K_F are the adsorption constants of each model, respectively; Q_max is the maximum equilibrium adsorption capacity calculated by the Langmuir model; and T is the heterogeneous factor in the Freundlich model.

Statistical methods

The value of the regression coefficient R² in the nonlinear fitting does not accurately reflect the merits of the model fitting. In this paper, an F-test was performed on the dyeing rate curve and the adsorption isotherm model fitting was used. The F_c value can be calculated from equation (8) and then compared with the statistical threshold value F_α(n, n–p–1). At F_c > 10 × F_α(n, n–p–1), the statistical results are highly significant.⁴⁶

F_{c} = \frac{\sum_{i = 1}^{n} ({\hat{y}}_{i} - {\bar{y}}_{i})^{2} / (p - 1)}{\sum_{i = 1}^{n} (y_{i} - {\hat{y}}_{i})^{2} / (n - p)}

(8)

where

{\hat{y}}_{i}

is the estimated value of the fitting model;

{\bar{y}}_{i}

is the average value of the experiment; y_i is the experiment value; n is the number of the experiment; p is the quantity of the model parameter; and α is the confidence level (in this paper, α = 0.005).

Photodegradation kinetics of the experiment

An aqueous solution of gardenia yellow dyestuff, in the concentration of 75 mg/L, was prepared accurately and subjected to light irradiation (xenon arc lamp as the light source, the radiation amount is 1.1 W/m², at 63℃) to perform the photodegradation experiment. After every 1-h interval, a certain amount of degradation residue was taken out for the measurement of the absorbance at the characteristic wavelength. The absorbance of the degradation residue was calculated for 12 intervals (each 1 h) corresponding to the dyestuff concentration. The relationship between the dyestuff concentration and time was investigated to observe the photodegradation kinetics of the dyestuff. The kinetic equation of dyestuff photodegradation can be expressed by the following equation⁴⁷

d C / d t = - {KC}^{m}

(9)

where C is dyestuff concentration (mg/L); t is reaction time (h); K is reaction rate constant (mg · L⁻¹)^1−m h⁻¹ and m is reaction order.

The correlation coefficient R² and the corresponding parameters of K were calculated with the data obtained from the Nernst, Langmuir, and Freundlich models.

Dyeing for colorfastness evaluation

Cotton fabric (4 g) was dyed using liquor ratio (1:20), gardenia yellow dye (1% o.w.f.) and mordant (1 g/L) at 70℃ for 30 min. The dyed samples were washed off using 1 g/L commercial detergent (Alconox) at 50℃ for 10 min. Three mordanting techniques, namely pre-, post-, and meta-mordanting, were employed using aluminum sulfate mordant.

Testing methods for colorfastness measurements

The light fastness of dyed fabrics was analyzed according to the internationally acceptable Chinese standard test method GB/T 8427-2008. The dyed fabric was placed in the machine chamber and illuminated by a xenon arc lamp (wavelength 300–750 nm) for 12 h and graded with the standard gray scale card.

GB/T 3921-2008 was followed in the investigation of the colorfastness to washing for dyed fabrics. GB soap tablets were used to prepare 5 g/L soap solution, and then the fabric was soaped according to the bath ratio of 1:50 at 40℃ for 15 min, and finally graded with the standard gray scale card.

Dry/wet rubbing fastness of dyed fabrics was analyzed according to GB/T 3920-1997. The dyed cotton fabric (50 mm × 50 mm) was adjusted on the YB517-II fastness tester instrument. The standard friction cloth was fixed on the friction head of the colorfastness tester. After 10 friction cycles, the friction cloth was graded with reference to the standard gray scale card.

GB/T 3922-1995 was applied to investigate the colorfastness to acid/alkaline sweat stains of dyed fabric (10 cm × 4 cm).

Results and discussion

UV-Vis spectra

The maximum absorbance wavelength of gardenia yellow is achieved at 442 nm,^23,30 as shown in Figure 4. Molar extinction coefficient at the maximum absorbance wavelength (442 nm) was observed to be 6021 M^–1cm^–1. Our results are in close agreement with the crude gardenia yellow purified by the column chromatography technique of Chen et al.³⁰ On the basis of UV-Vis absorption spectra of gardenia yellow solution after purification, they concluded two dominant peaks at 323 nm and 442 nm for chlorogenic acid and gardenia yellow, respectively. Thus, we can confidently assume that our commercial gardenia yellow does not need any further purification and can be used in natural dyeing.³⁰

Figure 4.

Ultraviolet-visible spectrum of gardenia yellow in water at room temperature.

Calibration curve

Gardenia yellow solutions were prepared in different concentrations and then the absorbance values of these solutions were measured at maximum wavelength (442 nm). These absorbance values were used for drawing the calibration curve.^30,48 The linear regression equation of the gardenia solution is shown in Figure 5. The abscissa represents the concentration (g/L) and the ordinate represents absorbance.

Figure 5.

Calibration curve for gardenia yellow at various concentrations.

According to Figure 5, the value of correlation coefficient R² of the linear regression equation is 0.9992, which indicates that the curve has a good fitting degree. When the solution concentration is below 0.1 g/L, the solution concentration is linear with the absorbance, which follows the Lambert–Beer law.⁴⁰ It is clear that the fitting degree is high, therefore, according to the above equation (y = 6.3248x + 0.0051), the concentration of gardenia yellow solution can be calculated by simply detecting the absorbance of the solution.

Dyeing kinetics

Dyeing rate curve

Figure 6 shows the dyeing rate curves of gardenia yellow. The curves increase sharply at the beginning of dyeing owing to the rapid fixation of dye molecules on the fabric with the help of mordant metal ions (Al³⁺) which form complex bonds simultaneously with the dye molecules and fibers, as represented in Figure 7.⁴⁹ In this way the dye was rapidly fixed to the surface of fibers resulting in a sharp increase in dye uptake, and after 90 min the dyeing rate curve started flattening and the dyeing process tended to balance. The temperature had a significant impact on the gardenia yellow dyeing of the cotton fabric; that is the higher temperature led to more dye uptake. When the dyeing process reached the equilibrium, the maximum amount of dye was adsorbed because the increased temperature led to the higher degree of fiber swelling. The movement of dye molecules became more violent and the molecules were more easily absorbed and diffused into the fiber inside.

Figure 6.

Dyeing rate curve of cotton dyeing with gardenia yellow.

Figure 7.

Representation of cotton–mordant–dye complex.

Fitting of the dyeing rate curve

The dyeing rate fitting curves at 60, 70, and 80℃ are shown in Figures 8, 9, and 10, respectively.

Figure 8.

Model fitting of dyeing rate curve at 60℃.

Figure 9.

Model fitting of dyeing rate curve at 70℃.

Figure 10.

Model fitting of dyeing rate curve at 80℃.

In Table 1, it can be seen from the R² and F_c values (R² (pseudo second order) > R² (pseudo first order) > R² (internal diffusion), F_c (pseudo second order) > F_c (pseudo first order) > 10 × F_0.001(13,10) > F_c (internal diffusion)) that the dyeing rate curve accords more with the pseudo second order kinetic model than the pseudo first order kinetic model and does not comply with the Weber–Morris internal diffusion model.⁴³ So the dyeing rate curve follows the pseudo second order kinetic model, which indicates that the intermolecular forces between the dye molecules and the hydroxyl groups of cotton fabric are the combination of van der Waals and hydrogen bonds.

Table 1.

Parameter values from fitting the dyeing rate curve model

Model	Parameter	Temperature
Model	Parameter	60℃	70℃	80℃
Pseudo first order	q_e (mg·g^–1)	6.0551	7.1626	7.3000
	k₁ (min^–1)	0.0687	0.0545	0.1017
	R ²	0.9674	0.9431	0.9389
	F_c	327.1641	187.9546	178.0637
Pseudo second order	q_e (mg·g^–1)	6.7095	8.0917	7.9782
	k₂ (g (mg·min)^–1)	0.0143	0.0089	0.0184
	R ²	0.9931	0.9837	0.9845
	F_C	1582.3560	661.6071	707.7062
Internal diffusion	C (mg·g^–1)	2.0795	2.0156	3.0107
	k_i (g·(mg·min^0.5)^–1)	0.3703	0.4704	0.4237
	R ²	0.7788	0.8637	0.4237
	F_C	38.7274	69.6946	31.3424

Note: F_0.001(13,10) = 8.3245.

Half-dyeing time

The half-dyeing time is calculated from the pseudo second order kinetic model because this model is the best fit for the dyeing rate curve, and the results are shown in Table 2. From Figure 6, it can be observed that in the initial stage, the dyeing rate at 70℃ is slightly higher than the dyeing rate at 60℃. At 70℃, the dye sites on the fabrics are closer to the saturated state making the half-dyeing time longer. At the dyeing equilibrium, the adsorption rates at 70℃ and 80℃ are close to each other but in the early stage of dyeing, the dyeing rate is significantly high. At the initial stage, the increase in temperature enhanced the swelling degree of the fiber and intensified the thermal motion of the dye molecules, which made it easy for the cotton fabric to adsorb the dye and ultimately reduced the half-dyeing time.

Table 2.

Half-dyeing time at various temperatures

Temperature	60℃	70℃	80℃
Half-dyeing time (min)	13.886	10.423	6.812

Dyeing thermodynamics

Adsorption isotherms of cotton dyeing with gardenia yellow colorant are shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11.

Adsorption isotherms of cotton dyeing with gardenia yellow colorant.

The fitting of adsorption isotherm models at temperatures of 60, 70, and 80℃ are demonstrated in Figures 12, 13, and 14, respectively.

Figure 12.

Model fitting of adsorption isotherm at 60℃.

Figure 13.

Model fitting of adsorption isotherm at 70℃.

Figure 14.

Model fitting of adsorption isotherm at 80℃.

In Table 3, the following can be observed from R² and F_c values: (a) at 60℃: R² (Langmuir) > R² (Freundlich) > R² (Nernst), F_c (Langmuir) > F_c (Freundlich) > 10 × F_0.001(13,10) > F_c (Nernst); (b) at 70℃: R² (Freundlich) > R² (Langmuir) > R² (Nernst), F_c (Freundlich) > F_c (Langmuir) > F_c (Nernst) and; (c) at 80℃: R² (Langmuir) > R² (Freundlich) > R² (Nernst), F_c (Langmuir) > F_c (Freundlich) > F_c (Nernst). For mordant dyeing of pure cotton fabrics with gardenia yellow, the above stated values are fairly close for the Freundlich and Langmuir models and these do not resemble the Nernst model. However, from Table 3 and Figures 12 to 14, it can be safely concluded that there is a greater fit with the Langmuir model than with the Freundlich model, although the fitting values are close to each other.

Table 3.

Parameter values from fitting the adsorption isotherm model

Model	Parameter	Temperature
Model	Parameter	60℃	70℃	80℃
Nernst	k (L·g^–1)	0.0970	0.1172	0.1368
	R ²	0.9765	0.9779	0.9165
	F_c	269.34	246.88	44.583
Langmuir	K_L (L·mg^–1)	0.0042	0.0046	0.0122
	Q_max (mg·g^–1)	35.857	39.610	27.133
	R ²	0.9980	0.9952	0.9919
	F_c	5578.1	2129.2	1309.3
Freundlich	K_F (mg^1/n·L^1/n·g^–1)	0.3581	0.4670	1.2273
	T	0.7299	0.7104	0.5360
	R ²	0.9965	0.9967	0.9896
	F_c	3014.9	3321.9	1025.5

Note: F_0.001(13,10) = 8.3245.

The equilibrium adsorption constants of the three models and the thermal motion of molecules increase with the rise in temperature due to the affinity of pure cotton woven fabric for dye molecules. In a region of low concentration, the equilibrium adsorption capacity increases quickly at the different temperatures and it gradually reduces with the increase of dye concentration as shown in Figures 12 to 14. The mordant forms the complex bonds between dye and fiber which is responsible for the localized adsorption and which is similar to the adsorption model curve of the Langmuir model. At the high concentration region, the equilibrium adsorption capacity increases slowly which is consistent with the Freundlich model curve. Gardenia yellow illustrates a kind of macromolecular structure retaining a linearity and showing good affinity for cellulose and it can form hydrogen bonds with hydroxyl groups of fiber which is a non-localized adsorption. This non-localized adsorption of gardenia yellow has similarity with the Langmuir model.

Park et al.³⁴ studied the adsorption isotherms and kinetic models for gardenia yellow on TiO₂ thin films in terms of temperature and pH. They concluded their adsorption isotherm data fitted according to the Langmuir isotherm while adsorption kinetic data accorded precisely with the pseudo second order model.

Photodegradation kinetics curve fitting

The experimental values of the dye concentration were obtained by 1stOpt software. The photodegradation kinetics curve fitting model is shown in Figure 15, and the values of the corresponding parameters of the kinetics curve model are provided in Table 4.

Figure 15.

Model fitting of photodegradation kinetics curve.

Table 4.

Values of photodegradation kinetics curve model

Time (h)	Dye concentration (mg/L)
Time (h)	Experimental values	Zero order fitting value	First order fitting value	Second order fitting value
0	75.00	75.00	74.99	74.99
1	65.71	70.82	68.00	64.84
2	57.81	65.64	60.85	56.55
3	52.28	60.47	54.45	50.13
4	45.96	55.29	48.72	45.02
5	40.43	50.11	43.60	40.86
6	36.48	44.93	39.01	37.40
7	32.54	39.76	34.91	34.49
8	30.17	34.58	31.24	31.99
9	28.59	29.40	27.95	29.83
10	27.80	24.22	25.01	27.94
11	27.00	19.05	22.38	26.28
12	26.50	13.87	20.03	24.81

Figure 15 shows that the photodegradation kinetic model of gardenia yellow solution accords with the second order reaction. Table 5 shows the R² and F_c values (i.e. R² (second order reaction) > R² (first order reaction) > R² (zero order reaction) and F_c (second order reaction) > 10 × F_0.005(13,11) > F_c (first order reaction) > F_c (zero order reaction)), which indicate that the photodegradation kinetic model of gardenia yellow solution is in harmony with the second order reaction, and the half decay time is t_1/2 = 1/(C₀·k) = 5.815 h. It is worth saying that the rate of photodegradation of gardenia yellow solution at a certain concentration goes on decreasing with time. Chai et al.³³ investigated the adsorption kinetic experiments for gardenia yellow on modified and unmodified cotton and concluded their data was in accordance with the pseudo second order kinetic model.

Table 5.

Parametric values of model fitting photodegradation kinetics curve

Parameters	Model
Parameters	Zero order reaction	First order reaction	Second order reaction
K [(mg · L⁻¹)^1−m h⁻¹]	5.178	0.111	0.002
R ²	0.893	0.977	0.994
F_c	9.213	45.867	183.569

Note: F_0.005(13,11) = 5.1649.

Further, we carried out various tests for colorfastness of the fabric dyed using commercially dyeing conditions and the results are shown in the Table 6. It is obvious that pre-, meta-, and post-mordanting techniques rendered different results especially in terms of shade but the colorfastness ratings were very similar. Figure 16 shows the comparison of cotton fabric undyed, dyed (meta-mordanting technique), and after lightfastness investigation.

Figure 16.

Comparison of (a) undyed 100% bleached cotton fabric; (b) meta-mordanted 100% cotton fabric dyed with gardenia yellow; (c) meta-mordanted 100% cotton fabric dyed with gardenia yellow after light fastness test.

Table 6.

Colorfastness of cotton samples dyed with gardenia yellow using different mordanting techniques

Sample	RF		PF		WF	LF
Sample	dry	wet	acid	alkaline	WF	LF	Image
Un-mordanted	4	3	3	3	3	2
Meta-mordanted	4–5	4	4	4	4	2–3
Pre-mordanted	4	4	4	4	4	2–3
Post-mordanted	4	4	4	4	4	2–3

LF: light fastness; PF: perspiration fastness; RF: rubbing fastness; WF: washing fastness.

It was observed that gardenia yellow dye on cotton fabric was resistant to wet and dry rubbing which indicates the strong bonding with fiber. Also, colorfastness to perspiration both in alkaline and acidic medium was observed to be very good. The washing fastness which mainly depends on the bonding interaction between fiber and dye was observed to be very good. However, the light fastness was in the range of poor to fair which indicates that degradation of gardenia yellow by light is a result of changes in chromophore.

Conclusion

In this study, gardenia yellow colorant was used to dye the pure cotton fabric using Al³⁺ as a meta-mordant. The dyeing rate curve followed the pseudo second order kinetic model. This mordant dyeing was a non-localized adsorption process which indicated that the adsorption isotherm much resembled the Langmuir model than the Freundlich model. The non-localized adsorption was caused by van der Waals and other intermolecular forces while localized adsorption was caused by complex ionic bonds between the dye and fiber. The photodegradation process of gardenia yellow colorant is in agreement with the second order kinetic model. It is evaluated that when cis-trans isomerization reaches the equilibrium value and with the passage of time, the breakage of the disaccharide lipid bond of gardenia yellow colorant will stop under certain illumination, the conjugated system will not be damaged, and the colorfastness will not be faded any further.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by Hubei State Key Laboratory, Wuhan, China.

ORCID iD

Muhammad Tahir Hussain

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