Religiosity,the Practices of Religions,and the Perception of Older People Among Muslims and Buddhists in Thailand

Abstract

We examined the effects of religiosity and the practices of religions among the Buddhists and Muslims aged 20 to 79 in Thailand on maintaining positive attitudes toward older people. Factor and multiple regression analyses are applied, using data from the 2011 National Survey on Conditions of Society and Culture. The measures of perception of older people are Social Value and Personal Value. Religiosity is measured by the self-assessment of religious strictness and one’s own practices according to the religious principles. Among Buddhists, the practices are measured by the frequency of praying, Takbat, Pancha Sila, and meditation. For Muslims, the practices are measured by the frequency of doing Salat, observing Saum, and giving Zakat. We found that religiosity and some practices of religions have positive effects on the perception of the value of older people. In addition, social policy for a smooth transition to an aging society should be considered alongside this religious mechanism.

Keywords

older people perception value religiosity Buddhists Muslims

Introduction

In an aging society, social and economic integration, mutual understanding, and coexistence between young and old populations become very important. History shows that older people were highly respected in traditional Thai society (Sobieszczyk, Knodel, & Chayovan, 2003). They were viewed as great teachers who had valuable knowledge and wisdom to pass onto the younger generation, including a better understanding of life. Also, a few researchers have asserted that respect for older age was one of the most important factors in maintaining the social status of the older people (Nydegger, 1983; Sung, 2001). In a society in which older people are well respected, people are more likely to have positive attitudes toward the older people (Sung, 2001).

Although the value of respect for the older people has always been a significant part of traditional Asian cultures, the importance of respect was changing (Ingersoll-Dayton & Saengtienchai, 1999). As a part of the globalization process, Thai society has gone through a demographic transition, as well as economic, social, and cultural changes. There have been significant declines in Thai fertility and an increase in longevity in Thailand. The total fertility rate has dropped from over six children per woman in 1960s to only 1.6 children per woman on average in 2016. Also, the life expectancy at birth has increased from 55 years in 1960 to 78.6 years for women and 71.8 years for men in 2016 (Institute for Population and Social Research, 2016; World Bank, 2015). These demographic changes have been driving a remarkable increase in the number and proportion of the elderly population in Thailand. Besides, as society shifted from an agrarian economic base to an industrial economy, elderly experience-based knowledge became less valued and traditional extended families faded away through urbanization (Cowgill, 1974). To a certain extent, Thai people’s norms, morals, and beliefs have altered values, especially toward more Western cultural values. Traditional Thai values which honor aging seem to be dissipating. These changes have dramatically affected Thai lives (Ingersoll-Dayton & Saengtienchai, 1999; Knodel & Chayovan, 2009). Therefore, it is necessary to find what factors can help us maintain our attitudes toward the value of older people. These findings may curve people’s attitudes to be more optimistic toward aged people. When people have a positive attitude towards older people, it may be easier for governments to formulate and implement pro-senior citizen policies, including social security and health programs for older people. In addition, once people view older people more favorably, they are more likely to accept them and respond positively to policies promoting elderly affairs.

Researchers in social science have found that religions have influenced on social behaviors and attitudes (Durkheim, 1897/1951; Knodel, Gray, Sriwatchrin, & Peracca, 1999; Putnam, 2000). In general, religious teachings remind us the gratitude and traditional values of respect for parents. As well, religions may maintain attitudes toward aged people of believers in good spirits. The purpose of this study is to examine religious factors that have an effect on the perceptions of older people. The researchers hypothesize that religiosity and the practices of religions will maintain the positive views toward older people and may improve the perceptions of aged people, after controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics such as age, sex, marital status, levels of educational attainment, residential area, region, and wealth. The analysis relies on data from the 2011 Survey on Conditions of Society and Culture, National Statistical Office (NSO) of Thailand.

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Thailand is already well into the transition to an aging society. In 2010, the data of the NSO of Thailand showed that 13.2% of the Thai population was 60 years old and older. Also, the data of the office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (2012) projected that the proportion of older people of the total population would increase to 19.1% in 2020, 26.6% in 2030, and 32.1% in 2040.

In Thailand, religiosity and the practices of religions are associated with traditional and cultural values. These values may have an influence on the public perception of older people. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the extent to which religiosity and the practices of religions may have an effect on the population, specifically the senior citizens.

Religiosity and Attitude Toward Older People

Hypothesis 1. People who have strong religiosity are more likely to perceive older people as being valuable than people who have weak religiosity.

Religion is seen as one of the most important sources of social capital (Putnam, 2000), which has become increasingly essential in the emerging aging societies around the world. According to Putnam (2000), the social capital referred to as civic virtue includes strong social networks, norms of reciprocity, and trustworthiness among individuals in the society. Religious people tend to know more people than nonreligious people. Religious involvement is also an indicator of volunteering and philanthropy. Religions are often powerful sources of inspiration and commitment to support others (Putnam, 2000).

Durkheim (1912/1965) considered religion as an important factor that could generate social integration. Social integration refers to the degree of one’s attachment to society’s values, beliefs, and norms, and how she or he maintains her or his relationship with other members of society. Durkheim’s study of the religious life also showed that religion acted as a powerful integrative force in maintaining common values and morals in a society.

In addition, the religious background was an important factor for the adoption of modern values (Yuchtman-Yaar & Alkalay, 2007). Norris and Inglehart (2004) found that there were statistically significant effects of religious participation on a variety of social attitudes and behaviors. Also, Finke and Adamczyk (2008) asserted that personal religious beliefs might be able to be used as a guideline for attitudes, especially where there was unclear social conformity. Likewise, Adamczyk and Pitt (2009) stated that numerous studies of religion in the United States have found that attitudes and behaviors were shaped by personal religiosity. Therefore, the researchers hypothesize that religiosity and the practices of religions will improve the perceptions of older people.

The Practices of Religions and Attitudes Toward Older People

Hypothesis 2. The practice of religion is associated with more positive attitudes toward older people.

In this study, the researchers focus on the Buddhism and Islam in Thailand. The reasons are that the majority of the people in Thailand are Buddhists (93.6% of the population); Islam is a distant second at 4.9%; while Christianity and other religions account for only 1.5% of the population (NSO, 2012e). Although, less than 5% of the population in Thailand is Muslim, the Muslim population is 28.6% in Southern Thailand (NSO, 2012d, 2012e), and up to 82.5% of population in the three southernmost provinces of Yala, Pattani, and Narathiwat is Muslim (NSO, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c, 2012d).

In general, religious teachings remind us of gratitude and traditional values of respect for parents. However, only in the Islamic religion are the teachings about respecting the older people (not only parents) written in its religious texts or Quran, which explicitly emphasizes the venerability of older age parents as well as older people in general. The Quran asserts the following:

Your Lord has commanded that you worship none but Him, and that you be kind to your parents. If one or both of them reach old age with you, do not say to them a word of disrespect, or scold them, but say a generous word to them. And act humbly to them in mercy, and say, ‘My Lord, have mercy on them, since they cared for me when I was small’. (Quran 17, pp. 23–24 cited in Ibrahim, 1997)

Islamic teachings about older people are unique and documented. They explicitly and precisely mandate respect for parents and older relatives and also preach respect for older people in general. In Hadith by Al-Albani (cited by Muhammad, 2015), it is stated that: “If a young man honors an elderly on account of his age, Allah appoints someone to honor him in his old age.” Also, Hadith by Al-Albani (cited by Muhammad, 2015) states that: “He is not one of us who does not show mercy to our young ones and esteem to our elderly.”

Furthermore, the Quran represents the Pillars of Islam as a principle for worship and commitment to the Islamic faith. The Pillars comprise five mandatory acts for individuals who believe in Islam and are the foundation of Islamic life. They are as follows: (a) The testimony of faith: there is one God, and Muhammad is God’s Messenger (Shahadah); (b) Ritual prayer who prays five times daily (Salat); (c) Compulsory charity to the poor and needy (Zakat); (d) fasting and self-control during the holy month of Ramadan (Saum); and (e) the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).

Unlike the Pillars of Islam, the main pillars of Buddha’s principle are the Four Noble Truth. This Truth is about the nature and cessation of suffering, including the Eight-Fold Path of Enlightenment, which leads to the end of suffering. To be on the Path, a layperson may observe five precepts (Pancha Sila). Laypeople may also gain merit (Tamboon) by going to temples to worship Buddha, offering food to monks (Takbat), making donation, praying according to Buddhist manuscripts, and practicing meditation. All these Buddhist practices are not compulsory—it is the Buddhist way of life.

Buddhism is about understanding and accepting the cycle of life: birth, aging, sickness, and death. This cycle is also known as the cycle of Suffering or the truth of Suffering (Pamojjo, Saipanich, & Aribarg, 2013). According to Buddhism, these suffering cycles are the inescapable realities of life. The Suffering will end if a person is able to attain enlightenment, rather than following worldly pursuits or trying to deny or directly avoid Suffering (Payutto, 2007). In other words, enlightenment is an ultimate goal of Buddhism in order to be free from the truth of Suffering. Aside from this ultimate goal, there are some Buddhist teachings about the importance of gratitude towards parents in the original Buddhist manuscripts; but there is no teaching on the services and care for other nonrelated older people. According to 38 Blessings in the Buddhist Manuscript, Blessing No. 11, it is stated that one should care for aging parents, and Blessing No. 17 says that one should support relatives and friends in times of need (Tattachevo, 2015). As a result, there is no specific writing about other older people who are not family members, according to Buddhist doctrine. Instead, respect for older people is related more to traditional Thai cultural practices (Sobieszczyk et al., 2003).

The religious teachings mentioned earlier reflect traditional views of respect for parents. People with strict religious principles tend to treat older parents with respect and do not view them as a burden. Only Islamic teachings preach giving respect to older people even if they are not family members. In reality, Thais care for others with kindness, regardless of age or blood relation (Ratanakul, 1999). Morals, values, culture, religiosity, and the practices of religions may be a major part of their respect for older people.

Method

To examine the effects of religiosity and the practices of religions on the perception of the value of older people, the researchers used data from the 2011 National Survey on Conditions of Society and Culture of Thailand. The survey was conducted by the NSO, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology. This survey was a nationally representative sample that contains data on a wide range of demographic, social, cultural, and attitudinal variables. The study sample included 21,994 Buddhists and 1,076 Muslims living in Thailand. The researchers used factor analysis to reduce some overlapping variables to yield a smaller set of factors and to help understand broader attitudes toward older people. Finally, the researchers applied standardized regression (beta) coefficients to estimate the impact of religiosity and the practices of religions on the perception of the value of older people because the measurement units of religiosity and a few independent variables in this study are arbitrary scales that do not have intrinsic interpretations. By using beta weights, the effects of the measurement units of the dependent and independent variables could be compared with each other since all beta coefficients are interpreted in standard deviation units.

The key independent variables are religiosity and the practice of Buddhism or Islam. Religiosity is measured by the levels of religious strictness and one’s own practices according to religious principles. In the self-assessment questionnaire, the responses to these two questions: (a) the level of religious strictness and (b) the level of one’s own practices according to religious principles are rated on a scale from 0 to 10 (i.e., 0 represents not at all and 10 represents the most). Since the Pearson’s correlation in each population between the level of religious strictness and the practices according to religious principles is as high as 0.8, the researchers decided to combine these two variables by using principle component analysis (PCA). This generated a new variable called religiosity. (The results from PCA for the variable, religiosity, are not shown.) For the questions on the practices of Buddhism or Islam, each religious practice is constructed as a dummy variable because of expected differences in predictive ability according to the religious contents. For example, the practices of Takbat, Pancha Sila, and Zakat appear overlap with social responsibility. Alternatively, praying and mediating seem to be self-oriented responsibility.

For Buddhists, responses to the survey on praying are divided into three dummy variables: (a) To pray routinely (5–7 days or week, 1–4 days or week or weekends); (b) to pray on the Buddhist days (Buddhist Sabbath [about four times a month]), the beginning and end of the 3-month Buddhist Lent Period, important Buddhist days and Thai festivals such as a New Year’s Day and Songkran (Thai New Year’s); and (c) to pray rarely or never. Takbat (morning alms giving to monks), to practice Pancha Sila (five precepts) and to meditate are also divided into three dummy variables according to the categorical frequencies of praying. The third category of each set of dummy variables is assigned to the omitted category.

For Muslims, doing Salat (praying) are divided into four groups: (a) To do Salat five times a day, (b) to do Salat less than five times a day, (c) to do Salat some days, and (d) not doing Salat at all. To observe Saum (fasting) is divided into three groups: (a) to observe Saum for the whole month, (b) to observe Saum for almost the whole month, and (c) not observing Saum at all. The last categories for the practices of doing Salat and Saum are the omitted category. Zakat (donation) is coded as 1 if a person answered that she or he gave Zakat; otherwise, this variable is coded as 0. If a person answered that she or he did not give Zakat because of no savings or money, the code is 1; otherwise, the code is 0. The dummy variable of “Not giving Zakat for other reasons than no savings or no money” is the omitted category.

The survey included another Islamic practice: “Did you go to Hajj in Mecca?” with response options of yes and no. Only 11% of respondents had gone to Hajj in Mecca (NSO, 2012e, 2012f). The rest of respondents had not been to Mecca yet. In fact, when people answered no to this question, that did not really indicate lack of religious strictness because, to go to Hajj in Mecca, depends on many factors, other than a person’s religious intent. For example, the Saudi government sets quotas on the number of citizens of different countries that are admitted to Mecca each year (Campo, 2009). Also, a qualified person should have permission from their family to go and not have any obligations to the family as a result. She or he should have enough money and be in a good health before going to Hajj in Mecca. Thus, this practice is excluded from the analysis.

Control variables include sex, age, marital status, educational attainment, residential area, region, and wealth. For any dichotomous variable, it is coded as a single 0 to 1 dummy variable, and that variable is coded as 1 to indicate the presence of the specific attributes, and the other is coded as 0. Since the variable, sex (male or female) is dichotomous variable, the new variable, male is coded as 1 to indicate that a person is male. On the other hand, the variable, male is coded as 0 when a person is female.

Selected ages range from 20 to 79 years and are divided into three groups: 20 to 39 years (younger age), 40 to 59 years (middle age), and 60 to 79 years (older age). The older-age group is the omitted category. Marital status is classified into four groups, with each group set as a dummy variable: single, married, widowed, and dissolved (including separated and divorced). The married group is the omitted category. Educational attainment is also categorized into four groups and set as dummy variables: less than primary school, primary school, junior high school or high school, and higher than high school. The “less than primary school” category is omitted.

For the variable, residential area, it is coded as a dummy variable. Urban, variable is coded as 1 to indicate that a respondent lives in an urban area; otherwise, it is coded as 0. Region is divided into three groups: the three southernmost provinces (Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala), the Southern region outside three provinces in the first group, and other region (omitted category). Ownership variables are used as the proxy for wealth. Although the survey asked about ownership of 12 household items, the last two items (tractors and driven engine farm plowing equipment) are excluded because they are too specifically related to agriculture. In this study, the researchers used PCA to reduce the 10 ownership items into one component and called it the Wealth Index.

The dependent variables are the attitudes toward older people as measured by 10 questions. These questions asked personal views on perception of older people. The respondents answered on a 3-point scale: 1 = yes, 2 = no, and 3 = not sure. According to the content of the questions, five questions indicate positive views of older people and the rest imply negative attitudes toward older people. In this study, the answers are recoded into two set of dummy variables: (a) 0 = no or not sure and 1 = yes for positive-view questions and (b) 0 = yes and 1 = no or not sure for negative-views questions. Note that, there are 11 questions asked personal views of older people in the survey. However, one of the questions is excluded because it is directly related to the respondents in older-age group. The question was that “Are people aged 60–79 years always a burden to their family?”

By using factor analysis with varimax rotation, the 10 questions of attitudes toward older people are summarized into two factors (see Table 1 for details). The number in each cell in Table 1 shows factor loadings, which are correlations between each question and factor according to varimax rotation. Each factor is named based on the size of the loading. Question Nos.1 to 5 are associated the most with the first factor and seem to represent the elderly values as sources of knowledge and benefit to society. Thus, the researchers labeled the first factor, Social Value. The second factor is corresponding to Question Nos. 6 to 10, which represents the negation of negative attitudes toward older people, and their contents seem to be more personal and portray the value as companion to live with. Therefore, the researchers named the second factor, Personal Value. Table 1 presents the results of factor analysis result for the Buddhist and Muslim populations.

Table 1.

Rotated Component Matrix: Results From the Factor Analysis of 10 Questions on Attitudes Toward Older People Among the Buddhists and Muslims in Thailand in 2011.

	Factors
	Buddhists		Muslims
	1	2	1	2
Questions on attitudes toward older people	Social value	Personal value	Social value	Personal value
1. Do older people have useful experiences for the younger generation? (Yes = 1)	0.812		0.807
2. Do older people set a good example for the younger generation? (Yes = 1)	0.792		0.822
3. Are older people useful for family and society? (Yes = 1)	0.755		0.805
4. Do older people know better because of their lifelong experience? (Yes = 1)	0.747		0.726
5. Do older people pass on culture and norms to the younger generation? (Yes = 1)	0.712		0.699
6. Are older people always boring? (No = 1)		0.722		0.743
7. Are older people hard to please? (No = 1)		0.690		0.693
8. Are people aged 80 and older always a burden to their family? (No = 1)		0.686		0.675
9. Are older people always obsolete? (No = 1)		0.577		0.576
10. Should older people live in a nursing home? (No = 1)		0.500		0.604

Note. Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser normalization. (Rotation converged in three iterations.)

Results

The sample contains 23,070 respondents, 37% male and 63% female, aged between 20 and 79 years. The mean age is 49 years for the Buddhists and 44 years for Muslims. Almost 70% of the Buddhist sample is married and 75% for Muslims. About 50% of Muslims are living in the three southernmost provinces (Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala). While 60% of Buddhists live in urban areas, more than half of Muslims live in rural areas. The majority of the two populations have at least primary level of education. On average, Muslims have a higher level of strictness and degree of religious practice according to religious principles than Buddhists. Muslims also have a higher percentage of routine religious practices than Buddhists. According to Table 2, more than 90% of respondents perceive older people as being valuable.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics: Means and Percentage of Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics, and Answers to Questions on Attitudes Toward Older People.

	Buddhists	Muslims
	(N = 21,994)	(N = 1,076)
Demographic characteristics Mean age (years)	49.01	44.14
Age-group
Younger age: 20–39	27%	40%
Middle age: 40–9	48%	44%
Older age: 60–79	25%	15%
Gender
Male	37%	37%
Female	63%	63%
Socioeconomic characteristics
Marital status
Single	12%	12%
Widowed	13%	10%
Dissolved	6%	4%
Married	69%	75%
Educational attainment
Less than primary	26%	27%
Primary	35%	38%
Junior or high school	23%	25%
Higher than high school	16%	10%
Residential area
Urban	60%	46%
Rural	40%	54%
Region
Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala	1%	50%
Southern region outside Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala	11%	33%
Other region	87%	18%
Religion
Mean of level of religious strictness	6.28	7.64
Mean of degree of religious practice according to religious principles	6.30	7.75
The practices of Buddhism
Routinely pray	32%	–
Buddhist-day pray	30%	–
Never or seldom pray	38%	–
Routinely Takbat	28%	–
Buddhist-day Takbat	51%	–
Never or seldom Takbat	21%	–
Routinely practice Pancha Sila	13%	–
Buddhist-day practice Pancha Sila	18%	–
Never or seldom practice Pancha Sila	69%	–
Routinely meditate	7%	–
Buddhist-day meditate	12%	–
Never or seldom meditate	82%	–
The practices of Islam
Salat five times a day	–	63%
Salat less than five times a day	–	21%
Salat some days or not at all	–	17%
Saum for the whole month	–	60%
Saum for less than the whole month	–	38%
Not observing Saum	–	2%
Zakat charity	–	47%
No Zakat charity because of no saving or money	–	41%
No Zakat charity	–	12%
Answers to questions on attitudes toward older people
1. Do older people have useful experiences for the younger generation? (Yes = 1)	96%	94%
2. Do older people set a good example for the younger generation? (Yes = 1)	94%	92%
3. Are older people useful for family and society? (Yes = 1)	94%	92%
4. Do older people know better because of their lifelong experience? (Yes = 1)	93%	92%
5. Do older people pass on culture and norms to the younger generation? (Yes = 1)	96%	92%
6. Are people age 80 years or older always a burden to their family? (No = 1)	88%	91%
7. Should older people live in a nursing home? (No = 1)	98%	97%
8. Are older people always obsolete? (No = 1)	64%	68%
9. Are older people hard to please? (No = 1)	72%	82%
10. Are older people always boring? (No = 1)	89%	91%

Table 3 presents standardized regression coefficients (beta weights) for Social Value among Buddhist and Muslim populations. Model 1 is nested within Model 2 for each population. In Table 3, only the beta for religiosity in Model 1 among Buddhists is statistically and significantly positive. This means that among Buddhists, the higher the level of religiosity one has, the more likely she or he is to perceive older people as being socially valuable. For Buddhists, adding the variables of Buddhist practices in Model 2 reduces the beta for religiosity and changes it to be insignificant. On the other hand, the betas for Buddhist-day Pray, Buddhist-day Takbat, and routinely Takbat are statistically and significantly positive. This shows that there is a positive association between the frequency of Pray or Takbat, and the perception of older people as being socially valuable. For Muslims, the beta for practices of Zakat charity and no Zakat charity because of no savings or money are statistically and significantly positive. This means that Muslims who give Zakat charity or not giving Zakat charity with the reason of no savings or money are more likely to socially value older people, compared with Muslims who do not give with other reasons.

Table 3.

Standardized Coefficients (Beta Weights) for Social Value: Models 1 and 2 Among the Buddhist and the Muslim Populations.

Religions	Buddhism		Islam
Dependent variable: Social Value	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
Independent variables	Beta	Beta	Beta	Beta
Male	−0.017*	−0.010	−0.040	−0.043
Younger age: 20–39	−0.079**	−0.072**	−0.040	−0.036
Middle age: 40–59	−0.042**	−0.040**	−0.047	−0.043
Single	−0.020**	−0.016*	0.003	0.008
Widowed	−0.004	−0.003	−0.018	−0.020
Dissolved	−0.004	−0.001	−0.023	−0.021
Urban area	−0.031**	−0.027**	0.017	0.015
Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala	−0.041**	−0.041**	−0.223**	−0.271**
South region outside Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala	−0.012	−0.010	−0.057	−0.027
Primary education	0.018*	0.017*	0.024	0.025
Junior and high school	0.007	0.007	0.034	0.032
Higher than high school	0.008	0.008	0.005	0.003
Wealth Index	0.034**	0.030**	0.000	0.020
Religiosity	0.022**	0.014	0.055	0.039
Buddhist-day pray	–	0.026**	–	–
Routinely pray	–	0.007	–	–
Buddhist-day Takbat	–	0.049**	–	–
Routinely Takbat	–	0.047**	–	–
Buddhist-day practice Pancha Sila	–	0.006	–	–
Routinely practice Pancha Sila	–	−0.003	–	–
Buddhist-day meditate	–	−0.009	–	–
Routinely meditate	–	−0.001	–	–
Salat five times a day	–	–	–	−0.014
Salat less than five times a day	–	–	–	−0.047
Saum for the whole month	–	–	–	−0.035
Saum for less than the whole month	–	–	–	−0.072
Zakat Charity	–	–	–	0.159**
No Zakat Charity because of no saving or money	–	–	–	0.269**
R ²	0.010	0.013	0.042	0.068
R ² _adj	0.009	0.012	0.029	0.051
F test	15.991**	12.894**	3.230**	3.859**
N	21,994	21,994	1,076	1,076

Note. *p < .05. **p < .01.

There are significantly positive betas for Primary Education and Wealth Index in Models 1 and 2 among the Buddhist population. This means that Buddhists with primary education are more likely to view aged people as being socially valuable, compared with Buddhists who have educational attainment lower than primary education. Also, Buddhists who are wealthier are likely to socially value older people, compared with Buddhists who are less affluent. On the other hand, there are significantly negative betas for male, young age, middle age, single (only in Model 1 among Buddhists), and urban area in Models 1 and 2 among Buddhists. This shows that among Buddhists with similar background, males, younger-age groups, single people, or people who live in urban areas are less likely to socially value older people, compared with females, older-age group, married people, and people who live in rural areas, respectively. Surprisingly, the betas of living in Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala in all models are statistically and significantly negative. This implies that people who live in these areas do not view older people as being socially valuable, compared with those living other regions.

Table 4 presents standardized regression coefficients (beta weights) for Personal Value among Buddhists and Muslims. In Table 4, all betas for religiosity in Models 1 and 2 for Buddhist and Muslim populations are statistically and significantly positive. This means that the higher the level of religiosity one has, the more likely she or he is to view aged people as being personally valuable. Only in Model 2 for Buddhists, the betas for Buddhist-day and routinely practice Pancha Sila are statistically and significantly positive. This shows that the frequency of these kinds of Buddhist practices has positive associations with the perception of older people as being personally valuable. However, the beta for routinely pray in Model 2 for Buddhists is significantly negative. This implies that Buddhists who routinely pray do not perceive older people as being personally valuable, compared with those who seldom pray.

Table 4.

Standardized Coefficients (Beta Weights) for Personal Value: Models 1 and 2 Among the Buddhist and the Muslim Populations.

Religions	Buddhism		Islam
Dependent variable: Personal Value	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
Independent variables	Beta	Beta	Beta	Beta
Male	0.010	0.011	−0.026	−0.015
Younger age: 20–39	0.056**	0.057**	0.042	0.041
Middle age: 40–59	0.051**	0.051**	0.006	0.010
Single	−0.001	0.000	0.006	0.007
Widowed	−0.006	−0.006	−0.012	−0.007
Dissolved	−0.005	−0.004	0.028	0.029
Urban area	0.013	0.015*	−0.007	−0.001
Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala	0.043**	0.042**	0.113**	0.089*
South region outside Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala	0.006	0.004	−0.070	−0.046
Primary education	0.021*	0.020*	0.095*	0.091*
Junior and high school	0.029**	0.029**	0.118**	0.113**
Higher than high school	0.046**	0.046**	0.080*	0.080*
Wealth Index	0.030**	0.029**	−0.028	−0.025
Religiosity	0.057**	0.051**	0.161**	0.155**
Buddhist-day pray	–	0.007	–	–
Routinely pray	–	−0.021*	–	–
Buddhist-day Takbat	–	0.016	–	–
Routinely Takbat	–	0.005	–	–
Buddhist-day practice Pancha Sila	–	0.025**	–	–
Routinely practice Pancha Sila	–	0.020**	–	–
Buddhist-day meditate	–	0.006	–	–
Routinely meditate	–	0.002	–	–
Salat five times a day	–	–	–	0.077
Salat less than five times a day	–	–	–	0.040
Saum for the whole month	–	–	–	0.011
Saum for less than the whole month	–	–	–	0.055
Zakat Charity	–	–	–	0.011
No Zakat Charity because of no saving or money	–	–	–	0.051
R ²	0.013	0.015	0.065	0.070
R ² _adj	0.013	0.014	0.053	0.052
F test	21.094**	15.178**	5.268**	3.965**
N	21,994	21,994	1,076	1,076

Note. *p < .05. **p < .01.

There are significantly positive betas for all levels of education attainment in Models 1 and 2 for Buddhist and Muslim populations and Wealth Index in Models 1 and 2 for Buddhists only. This means that people with at least primary education are more likely to view aged people as being personally valuable, compared with people who have education attainment lower than primary level. Only Buddhists who are wealthier are likely to personally value older people, compared with Buddhists who are less affluent. Besides, in Models 1 and 2 for Buddhists, there are significantly positive betas for younger age, middle age, and urban area (only in Model 2 for Buddhists). This shows that among Buddhists with similar background, younger-age groups and people who live in urban areas are more likely to personally value older people, compared with old age-group and people who live in rural areas, respectively. Different from Models 1 and 2 in Table 3, the betas of living in Narathiwat, Pattani, or Yala in Models 1 and 2 in Table 4 are statistically and significantly positive. This implies that people who live in these areas view older people as being personally valuable, compared with those living other regions.

Discussion and Conclusions

In this study, there is some evidence that religiosity and some practices of religions are associated with positive attitudes toward older people. In general, Buddhist and Islamic teachings reflect a positive view of and respect for older people. The results show that for the Buddhists, the higher the level of religiosity, the more likely they are to value older people in both social and personal spheres. This implies that Buddhists with strict religiosity still have a high regard for the value of older people. However, for Muslims, the level of religiosity is significantly and positively associated with personal value but not for social value of older persons. This result may reflect Islamic teachings on the moral attitudes toward older people. Thus, Muslims may accept and respect older people as a tradition but may not care for their experience-based and lifetime knowledge. Generally, Muslims tend to emphasize the importance of filial respect for aged people (Said, 1989). In addition, Islamic doctrine is strictly followed among devout Muslims.

Religious practices appear to have two aspects: (a) the social responsibility in religious practice and (b) the personal responsibility in religious practice. The first dimension includes practices that entail involvement with others or society such as Takbat, practices on Buddhist holy days at a temple and Zakat charity. The latter dimension is about individual religious practices for his or her religious beliefs, such as routine prayer and meditation. For Buddhists, the practices of Takbat and praying on Buddhist holy days are associated with viewing older people as being socially valuable. This implies that these kinds of religious practices offer a sense of valuing others and caring for society. On the other hand, Buddhists who routinely pray do not perceive aged people as being personally valuable. Probably, these people are at the phase of the truth of Suffering so they accept things as the way they are. Among Muslims, there is a positive relationship between the perception of older people as being of social value and giving Zakat charity. One of the roles of Zakat charity is to maintain social well-being in society (Ibrahim, 2015). The importance of giving Zakat charity is for compassion, sharing, and strengthening social justice for social equality. Surprisingly, people who reside in the southernmost region of Thailand (Narathiwat, Pattani, and Yala) are less likely to socially value older people; however, they are more likely to personally value aged people. These unexpected results need to be further investigated in a future study.

Among Buddhists, the younger-age and middle-age groups are less likely to view older people as being socially valuable, compared with the older-age group. Perhaps, the older-age group may be perceived to have greater need for care and support from younger relatives or persons. On the other hand, the younger-age groups are more likely to view older people as being personal valuable, compared with older-age groups. One of the reasons is that older people may view their declining health and strength negatively, thus explaining their negative stereotypes of aging.

Although education was not the focus in this study, educational attainment appears to increase the perception of older people as being valuable. Also, this finding is consistent with earlier findings that education plays an important role in positive attitudes toward older people (Okoye & Obikeze, 2005). Okoye and Obikeze also stated that when young people, particularly in their earlier years, were educated with the knowledge of aging and aging issues, they would make good decisions in the future on matters affecting society, especially an aging society. In addition, according to Ingersoll-Dayton and Saengtienchai (1999), the respondents in their study stated that the lack of teaching morals, norms, and values and the increasing academic knowledge gap between the younger and older generations may contribute to the decreasing respect for older people. These findings suggest that educational system should emphasize and increase teaching of morals, norms, and social values, specifically elderly values.

Nevertheless, these finding should be considered within the context of some limitations of this study. The topic of values of older people was addressed in Buddhist and Muslim populations in Thailand and, thus, the findings may have limited generalizability. There may be variation in the degree to which nations value older people, and this can be influenced by the religious environment. Future research should conduct cross-cultural and cross-national comparisons as well as use multiple measures of aging and older life. A longitudinal study on this topic would be most informative since the transition to an aging society is dynamic and constantly evolving.

At present, the challenges of the transition to an aging society are becoming increasingly apparent around the world. With an increase in the number and proportion of the elderly population, as well as a rapid increase in life expectancy, aging is no longer appreciated as a natural process, and negative aging stereotypes are more tolerated by society (Nolan, 2011). In addition, Kearney, Miller, Paul, and Smith (2000) found that health-care professionals perceived an increase in the elderly population as a social problem because they were overwhelmed by the increasing number of elderly patients. These negative attitudes about older people could develop into ageism. To deal with these challenges, countries need to utilize the social capital that have involved in society. One of the components of social capital is religion. Religion may help to create and boost social networks as well as to inspire a spirit of community. Also, religious practices may increase participation of young and old generations in the community. Regular religious worshipers and people who have strong religious beliefs are more likely than other people to have strong social connectivity, to know more people, to visit friends, to belong to professional and academic societies, and to volunteer and to give charity (Putnam, 2000).

It is essential to recognize that religiosity and religious practices can help society to preserve the traditional value of respect and honor for older people, which may maintain and elevate the status of older people in the society. Sung (2001) also asserts that people are more likely to have positive attitudes toward the older people in those societies where older people are well respected. This also corresponds to the fact that respect for older people is one of the main qualities needed to sustain the social status of the older people (Nydegger, 1983; Sung, 2001). The degree of involvement in religion significantly affects social capital in the society. If this social capital is well maintained, it can be very helpful in the successful transition to an aging society. Therefore, the existing social capital should be exploited along with advancement of government policies to ensure that older people will experience both physical and mental well-being, and be able to live with dignity, with all their basic needs met.

In sum, religion seems to improve positive attitudes toward older people, with certain exceptions of some religious practices, and these need to be studied in future research. Religious people are more likely to have positive views toward older people. A better understanding of the effects of religiosity and its practices will benefit aging societies in Thailand and in other settings. Community and social values regarding older people, combined with religiosity are, perhaps, the most important mechanism to smooth aging society. Social programs and public policies including social security and health care may consider using religious campaigns to maintain and develop positive attitudes toward older people. All these together can be successful in promoting well-being for older people as well as promoting intergenerational integration and support in the future aging society.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Sumana Leelavanichkul, PhD, recently received her doctoral degree in demography from Mahidol University, Thailand. Her research focuses on human capital and socioeconomic development with emphasis on the relations between culture, religion, mental health, family, and aging.

Aphichat Chamratrithirong, PhD, is an emeritus professor of Institute for Population and Social Research at Mahidol University. He has worked for decades in the fields of migration, fertility, social demography, population and development, HIV or AIDS prevention program evaluation, and adolescent study by collaborating on research projects and writing multitudinous articles in these areas.

Aree Jampaklay, PhD, has been an associate professor of Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University since 2009. Her research has focused on migration process and migration effects on family left behind, family formation, and longitudinal studies. Her current researches include a follow-on study of childhood and parental migration and a longitudinal study on migration, gender, and conflict in the deep-south provinces of Thailand.

Rossarin Gray, PhD, is an associate professor of Institute for Population and Social Research (IPSR) at Mahidol University. She is the director of IPSR, Mahidol University and was the director of Social Statistics Division at National Statistical Office in Bangkok, Thailand. Her research interest focuses on historical demography, happiness studies, and aging, on which she has published articles and books.

References

Adamczyk

Pitt

(2009) Shaping attitudes about homosexuality: The role of religion and cultural context. Social Science Research 38: 338–351.

Campo

J. E.

(2009) Encyclopedia of Islam, New York, NY: Facts On File, Inc.

Cowgill

D. O.

(1974) The aging of populations and societies. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 415(1): 1–18.

Durkheim

(1897/1951) Suicide, New York, NY: Free Press.

Durkheim

(1912/1965) The elementary forms of religious life, New York, NY: Free Press.

Finke

Adamczyk

(2008) Cross-national moral beliefs: The influence of national religious context. Sociological Quarterly 49: 615–650.

Ibrahim, I. A. (1997). A brief illustrated guide to understanding Islam (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://www.islam-guide.com/islam-guide.pdf.

Ibrahim

S. M.

(2015) The role of Zakat in establishing social welfare and economic sustainability. International Journal of Management and Commerce Innovation 3(1): 437–441.

Ingersoll-Dayton

Saengtienchai

(1999) Respect for the elderly in Asia: Stability and change. International Journal of Aging and Human Development 48: 113–130.

10.

Institute for Population and Social Research. (2016). Mahidol Population Gazette. Retrieved from http://www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/ipsrbeta/en/Gazette.aspx.

11.

Kearney

Miller

Paul

Smith

(2000) Oncology healthcare professionals’ attitudes toward elderly people. Annals of Oncology 11: 599–601.

12.

Knodel

J. E.

Chayovan

(2009) Intergenerational relationships and family care and support for Thai elderly. Aging International Journal 33(1–4): 15–27.

13.

Knodel

J. E.

Gray

R. S.

Sriwatchrin

Peracca

(1999) Religion and reproduction: Muslims in Buddhist Thailand. Population Studies 53(2): 149–164.

14.

Muhammad, M. Y. (2015). The prophet’s mercy towards the elderly. Onislam. Retrieved from http://www.onislam.net/english/shariah/muhammad/manners/442090-the-prophets-mercy-towards-the-elderly.html.

15.

National Economic and Social Development Board (2012) Population plan: Social and economic development plan 11 (2012–2016), Bangkok, Thailand: Author.

16.

National Statistical Office – Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (2012a) The 2010 population and housing census (Changwat Narathiwat), Bangkok, Thailand: Text & Journal Publication Co., Ltd.

17.

National Statistical Office – Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (2012b) The 2010 population and housing census (Changwat Pattani), Bangkok, Thailand: Text & Journal Publication Co., Ltd.

18.

National Statistical Office – Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (2012c) The 2010 population and housing census (Changwat Yala), Bangkok, Thailand: Text & Journal Publication Co., Ltd.

19.

National Statistical Office – Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (2012d) The 2010 population and housing census (Southern Region), Bangkok, Thailand: Text & Journal Publication Co., Ltd.

20.

National Statistical Office – Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (2012e) The 2010 population and housing census (Whole Kingdom), Bangkok, Thailand: Text & Journal Publication Co., Ltd.

21.

National Statistical Office – Ministry of Information and Communication Technology (2012f) The 2011 survey on conditions on of society and culture, Bangkok, Thailand: ID All Digital Print, Ltd.

22.

Nolan

L. C.

(2011) Dimensions of aging and belonging for the older person and the effects of ageism. Brigham Young University Journal of Public Law 25(2): 317–339.

23.

Norris

Inglehart

(2004) Religious organizations and social capital. The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law 7(1): Retrieved from http://www.icnl.org/reserch/journal/vol6iss4/art_2.htm.

24.

Nydegger

C. N.

(1983) Family ties of the aged in the cross cultural perspective. The Gerontologist 23: 26–32.

25.

Okoye

U. O.

Okoye

D. S.

(2005) Stereotypes and perceptions of the elderly by the youth in Nigeria: Implication for social Policy. The Journal of Applied Gerontology 24(5): 439–452.

26.

Pamojjo

Saipanich

Aribarg

(2013) The Buddhist way to peace of mind, Chonburi, Thailand: Wat Suan Santidham.

27.

Payutto

P. A.

(2007) Vision of the Dhamma: A collection of Buddhist writings in English, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand: Wat Nyanavesakavan.

28.

Putnam

R. D.

(2000) Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community, New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.

29.

Ratanakul

(1999) Buddhism, health, disease, and Thai culture. In: Coward

Ratanakul

(eds) A cross-cultural dialogue on health care ethics, Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, pp. 17–33.

30.

Said

(1989) Islam and the health of the elderly. In: Clements

W. M.

(ed.) Religion, aging and health: A global perspective, New York, NY: Haworth Press, pp. 27–38.

31.

Sobieszczyk

Knodel

Chayovan

(2003) Gender and well-being among older people: Evidence from Thailand. Aging and Society 23(6): 701–735.

32.

Sung

(2001) Elder respect exploration of ideals and forms in East Asia. Journal of Aging Studies 15: 13–26.

33.

Tattachevo, P. (2015). 38 Blessings. Retrieved from http://www.kalyanamitra.org/mongkhol/index_mongkhol.html.

34.

World Bank. (2015). World Bank open data. Retrieved from http://beta.data.worldbank.org.

35.

Yuchtman-Yaar

Alkalay

(2007) Religious zones, economic development and modern value orientations: Individual versus contextual effects. Social Science Research 36: 789–807.