This investigation introduced multiple competitive attacks in order to assess the effectiveness of inoculation treatments in protecting established attitudes in a natural setting. A four-phase experiment was conducted involving 433 participants. The results revealed that the effectiveness of refutational inoculation messages dissipated some in the face of an additional attack. Still, refutational inoculation messages proved to be more effective than supportive, restoration, and control (no message) conditions in protecting established attitudes in the face of multiple attacks. The content of an additional attack (the same as the first attack or different) did not affect the capacity of inoculation refutational messages to confer resistance to competitive attacks.
Arndorfer, J.B. ( 2004, August 23). Miller turnaround hits one-year mark for surging Lite line. Advertising Age, p. 6.
2.
Arndorfer, J.B. ( 2005, March 28). If you love your country, drink Bud. Advertising Age, p. 1, 22.
3.
Atkin, C.K. ( 1984). Consumer and social effects of advertising. In B. Dervin & M. J. Voigt (Eds.), Progress in communication sciences (Vol. 4, pp. 205-248). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
4.
Atkinson, C. ( 2007, September 4). Drivers size up Ford (unknowingly) in new campaign. The New York Times, p. C3.
5.
Banas, J.A., & Rains, S.A. ( 2008, November). A meta-analysis of research on inoculation theory. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Communication Association, San Diego, CA.
6.
Becker, S.W., Bavelas, A., & Braden, M. ( 1961). An index to measure contingency of English sentences . Language and Speech, 4, 138-145.
7.
Belch, G.E., & Belch, M.A. ( 2007). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing communications perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill .
8.
Bither, S.W., Dolich, I.J., & Nell, E.B. ( 1971). The application of attitude immunization techniques in marketing. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 56-61.
9.
Boddewyn, J.J., & Marton, K. ( 1978). Comparison advertising: A worldwide study. New York: Hastings House.
10.
Brandt, D.R. ( 1979). Listener propensity to counterargue, distraction, and resistance to persuasion. Central States Speech Journal, 30, 321-331.
11.
Burgoon, M., Cohen, M., Miller, M.D., & Montgomery, C.L. (1978). An empirical test of a model of resistance to persuasion. Human Communication Research , 5, 27-39.
12.
Burgoon, M., Pfau, M., & Birk, T.S. ( 1995). An inoculation theory explanation for the effects of corporate issue/advocacy advertising campaigns. Communication Research, 22, 485-505.
13.
Carter, A. ( 2005, March 28). Making lite of the king. BusinessWeek , p. 105.
14.
Chao, P. ( 1993). Partitioning country of origin effects: Consumer evaluations of hybrid products. Journal of International Business Studies , 24, 291-306.
15.
Cohen, J. ( 1990). Things I have learned (so far). American Psychologist, 45, 1304-1312.
16.
Compton, J., & Pfau, M. ( 2005). Inoculation theory of resistance to influence at maturity: Recent progress in theory development and application and suggestions for future research. In P. Kalbfleisch (Ed.), Communication yearbook 29 (pp. 97-145). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
17.
Cordell, V.V. ( 1991). Competitive context and price as moderators of country of origin preferences. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19, p. 123.
18.
Dougherty, P.H. ( 1973, November 14). Advertising: Comparison issue. New York Times.
19.
Droge, C. ( 1989). Shaping the route to attitude change: Central versus peripheral processing through comparative versus noncomparative advertising . Journal of Marketing Research, 26, 193-204.
Hawkins, D.I., Albaum, G., & Best, R. ( 1977). An investigation of two issues in the use of students as surrogates for housewives in consumer behavior studies. Journal of Business, 50, 216-222.
22.
Insko, C.A. ( 1967). Theories of attitude change. New York : Appleton-Century-Crofts.
23.
Ivanov, B., Pfau, M.W., & Parker, K.A. ( 2007, November). The potential of inoculation in promoting resistance to the effectiveness of multiple competitive attacks on the country of origin concept. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Marketing Association, San Diego, CA.
24.
Ivanov, B., Pfau, M.W., & Parker, K.A.(2009, March). The attitude base as a moderator of the effectiveness of inoculation strategy. Communication Monographs, 76, 47-72.
25.
Johansson, J.K. ( 1992). Missing a strategic opportunity: Managers’ denial of country-of-origin effects. In N. Papadopoulos & L. A. Heslop (Eds.), Product-country images (pp. 77-86). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press.
26.
Kardes, F.R. ( 2001). Consumer behavior and managerial decision making (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
27.
Katz, D. ( 1960). The functional approach to the study of attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 163-204.
28.
Kirk, R.E. ( 1995). Experimental design: Procedures for behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA : Brooks/Cole.
29.
Lampert, S.I., & Jaffe, E.D. ( 1998). A dynamic approach to country-of-origin effect. European Journal of Marketing, 32, 61-78.
30.
Lampert, S.I., & Jaffe, E.D. ( 1996). Country of origin effects on international market entry . Journal of Global Marketing, 10, 27-52.
31.
Lee, W., & Pfau, M. ( 1997). The effectiveness of cognitive and affective inoculation appeals in conferring resistance against cognitive and affective attacks. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Jerusalem, Israel.
32.
Levy, R. ( 1987). Big resurgence in competitive ads. Dun’s Business Month, 129, 56-58.
33.
Liefeld, J.P. ( 1992). Experiments on country-of-origin effects: Review and meta-analysis of effect size. In N. Papadopoulos & L. A. Heslop (Eds.), Product-country images (pp. 117-156). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press, Inc.
34.
MacArthur, K. ( 2007, May 22). Why big brands are getting into the ring. Retrieved October 29, 2008, from http://adage.com/article?article_id=116722&search_phrase=Why+big+brands+are+getting+into+the+ring
35.
Mazzocco, P.J. ( 2000). Mental imagery and the attitude change process. , Unpublished master’s thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus.
36.
Mazzocco, P.J., & Brock, C.B. ( 2006). Understanding the role of mental imagery in persuasion: A cognitive resources model analysis. In L. R. Kahle & C. H. Kim (Eds.), Creating images and the psychology of marketing communication (pp. 65-78). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
37.
McGuire, W.J. ( 1961a). The effectiveness of supportive and refutational defenses in immunizing and restoring beliefs against persuasion. Sociometry , 24, 184-197.
38.
McGuire, W.J. ( 1961b). Resistance to persuasion conferred by active and passive prior refutation of same and alternative counterarguments. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 63, 326-332.
39.
McGuire, W.J. ( 1962). Persistence of the resistance to persuasion induced by various types of prior belief defenses. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64, 241-248.
40.
McGuire, W.J. ( 1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion: Some contemporary approaches. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 191-229). New York: Academic Press.
41.
McGuire, W.J. ( 1966). Persistence of the resistance to persuasion induced by various types of prior belief defenses. In C. W. Backman & P. P. Secord (Eds.), Problems in social psychology (pp. 128-135). New York: McGraw-Hill.
42.
McGuire, W.J., & Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy of various types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion . Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 62, 327-337.
43.
Miller, W.B., & Baron, R.S. ( 1973). On measuring counterarguing. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 1, 101-118.
44.
Mitchell, S. ( 2004, June 6). Brewing giants go head to head in court. The Post.IE: The Sunday Business Post Online. Retrieved September 21, 2005, from http://archives.tcm.ie/businesspost/2004/06/06/story734655334.asp#
45.
Mohamad, O., Ahmed, Z.U., Honeycutt, E.D., & Tyebkhan, T.H. (2000, Fall). Does "made in . . ." matter to consumers? A Malaysian study of country of origin effect. Multinational Business Review, 73.
46.
Morello, G. ( 1992). International product competitiveness and the "made in" concept. In N. Papadopoulos & L. A. Heslop (Eds.), Product-country images (pp. 285-309). Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press.
47.
Nabi, R.L. ( 2003). "Feeling" resistance: Exploring the role of emotionally evocative visuals in inducing inoculation. Media Psychology , 5, 199-223.
48.
Papageorgis, D., & McGuire, W.J. ( 1961). The generality of immunity to persuasion produced by pre-exposure to weakened counterarguments. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 62, 475-481.
49.
Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. ( 1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 123-205.
50.
Pfau, M. ( 1991, November). Impact of product involvement, message format, and receiver gender on the efficacy of comparative advertising messages. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Atlanta, GA.
51.
Pfau, M. ( 1992). The potential of inoculation in promoting resistance to the effectiveness of comparative advertising messages. Communication Quarterly, 40, 26-44.
52.
Pfau, M. ( 1997). The inoculation model of resistance to influence. In F. J. Boster & G. Barnett (Eds.), Progress in communication sciences (Vol. 13, pp. 133-171). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
53.
Pfau, M., & Burgoon, M. ( 1988). Inoculation in political campaign communication. Human Communication Research, 15, 91-111.
54.
Pfau, M., Compton, J., Parker, K.A., An, C., Wittenberg, E.M., Ferguson, M., Horton, H., & Malyshev, Y. ( 2006). The conundrum of the timing of counterarguing effects in resistance: Strategies to boost the persistence of counterarguing output . Communication Quarterly, 54, 143-156.
55.
Pfau, M., Compton, J., Parker, K.A., Wittenberg, E.M., An, C., Ferguson, M., et al. (2004). The traditional explanation for resistance based on the core elements of threat and counterarguing and an alternative rationale based on attitude accessibility: Do these mechanisms trigger distinct or overlapping process of resistance? Human Communication Research, 30, 329-360.
56.
Pfau, M., Ivanov, B., Houston, B., Haigh, M., Sims, J., Gilchrist, E., et al. (2005). Inoculation and mental processing: The instrumental role of associative networks in the process of resistance to counterattitudinal influence. Communication Monographs, 72, 414-441.
57.
Pfau, M., Kenski, H.C., Nitz, M., & Sorenson, J. ( 1990). Efficacy of inoculation strategies in promoting resistance to political attack messages: Application to direct mail. Communication Monographs, 57, 25-43.
58.
Pfau, M., Roskos-Ewoldsen, D., Wood, M., Yin, S., Cho, J., Lu, K.H., et al. (2003). Attitude accessibility as an alternative explanation for how inoculation confers resistance. Communication Monographs, 70, 39-51.
59.
Pfau, M., Szabo, E.A., Anderson, J., Morrill, J., Zubric, J., & Wan, H.H. ( 2001). The role and impact of affect in the process of resistance to persuasion. Human Communication Research, 27, 216-252.
60.
Pfau, M., & Van Bockern, S. (1994). The persistence of inoculation in conferring resistance to smoking initiation among adolescents: The second year. Human Communication Research, 20, 413-430.
61.
Pride, W.M., Lamb, C.W., & Pletcher, B.A. (1979). The informativeness of comparative advertisements: An empirical investigation. Journal of Advertising, 8, 29-48.
62.
Pryor, B., & Steinfatt, T.M. (1978). The effects of initial belief level on inoculation theory and its proposed mechanisms. Human Communication Research, 4, 217-230.
63.
Roth, M.S., & Romeo, J.B. ( 1992). Matching product category and country image perceptions: A framework for managing country-of-origin effects. Journal of International Business Studies, 23, 477-497.
64.
Snyder Bulik, B. ( 2007, February 12). Apple plan: Lead consumers into temptation-and away from Vista. Advertising Age, p. 1, 28.
Tannenbaum, P.H., Macauley, J.R., & Norris, E.L. ( 1966). Principle of congruity and reduction of persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 233-238.
67.
Ulanoff, S.M. ( 1975, February). Comparison advertising: An historical perspective (pp. 9-46). Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute Working Paper.
68.
Yavas, U. ( 1994). Research note. International Marketing Review, 11, 35-43.
69.
Zaichkowsky, J.L. ( 1985). Measuring the involvement construct. Journal of Consumer Research, 12, 341-352.
