Exploring the interplay of migrant entrepreneurship,emotional intelligence and social integration of marriage migrant women in South Korea

Abstract

This research explores the role of entrepreneurship and emotional intelligence in the social integration of female marriage migrants who are entrepreneurs in South Korea. A qualitative research design was employed to gather data from 32 female marriage migrant entrepreneurs in South Korea through snowball sampling. The main findings revealed that they encountered enormous challenges at various stages of their entrepreneurship, but emotional intelligence played an essential role in their business success. This study demonstrates that entrepreneurship, with the help of emotional intelligence, enables marriage migrants to integrate socially into the host country. This research examines a unique aspect of migrants as it captures hidden realities, and presents implications and future directions for many stakeholders. The findings of this research can serve as a reference to help resolve the problems of migrant entrepreneurs and integration issues of migrant women in similar contexts.

Keywords

migrant entrepreneurs emotional intelligence social integration marriage migrant women entrepreneurs South Korea

Introduction

Entrepreneurship impacts migrants’ social integration and self-actualization in the host country since they support themselves and others by creating jobs (Martínez Mateo et al., 2013; Martínez-Martínez, 2022; Rahman, 2018; Ren and Liu, 2015). Migrant entrepreneurs with high emotional intelligence (EI) tend to be more successful than those who do not display positive emotions because EI improves communication, negotiating, teamwork, decision-making and problem-solving skills (Agbim, 2018; Oriarewo et al., 2014).

With the increase in marriages between men from the Global North and women from the Global South in the past few decades, many scholars explored the numerous acculturative and social integration issues experienced by marriage migrants, such as unemployment, communication barriers and adjustment difficulties (Jung et al., 2024; Kim et al., 2022; Wijerathna and Hewapathirana, 2022). Self-employment not only helped them become economically established in the country, but also assisted them in integrating socially and culturally into the host country (Brunetti and Zaiceva, 2023). Although a plethora of literature has addressed social integration issues and challenges encountered by migrant entrepreneurs in multiple countries (Babis, 2021; Curran et al., 2016; Geddes and Taylor, 2016; Lightman et al., 2022; Naudé et al., 2017; Polkowska, 2019), we found no accessible study on the experiences of marriage migrant women entrepreneurs. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the role of EI and entrepreneurship associated with the social integration of marriage migrant women in South Korea. The findings of this study may help the governments of origin and destination countries of marriage migrants, migrant entrepreneurs, practitioners and counselors of marriage migrant support centers to understand marriage migrants’ motivations for starting a business, the challenges they face and how they may achieve business success through EI.

Over the past few decades, South Korea (hereafter, Korea) has become one of the world’s most important and modern immigration destinations, with a growing number of marriage migrants, foreign workers and international students (Wijerathna and Hewapathirana, 2019). As a result, the previously homogeneous Korean society has gradually been transforming into a multicultural and multiethnic society (Kim, 2018a, 2018b; Son and Shin, 2020), and the term “multicultural” (damunhwa) has become a widely discussed topic in Korean society (Kim, 2015). As Korea struggles to accept multicultural families and get familiar with the notion of ethnic diversity, members of multicultural families come across challenges and rejections not only at the social level but also at the family and interfamily levels, and urgent attention is required to alleviate unprecedented challenges (Choi and Byoun, 2014; Jung et al., 2024). The advantages and disadvantages of promoting cultural diversity in Korea at organizational, societal and national levels are extensively discussed in the literature, and yet the majority of those research findings remain equivocal (Jo and Jung, 2017). Furthermore, Korea currently has one of the highest employment inequality between native Koreans and migrants from the Global South in terms of unemployment and low wages (Kim, 2018a; Yang, 2017a, 2017b). This study defines marriage migrant entrepreneurs as female migrants who migrated to Korea by marrying Korean men and are self-employed through owning small businesses.

Migrant entrepreneurs struggle to secure finances for economic engagement and to develop their businesses in the host country (Mendy and Hack-Polay, 2018; Rath and Swagerman, 2016; Zhu et al., 2019). They encounter numerous barriers, including racial discrimination, lack of technical and language skills, high competition for inadequate resources, and limited networking due to their non-native status (Mendy and Hack-Polay, 2018; Rath and Swagerman, 2016; Zhu et al., 2019). Their non-native status led to numerous psychological issues like depression, anxiety, psychotic disorders and post-traumatic disorders (Mucci et al., 2020; Robertson and Grant, 2016).

Researchers suggest a variety of theoretical and conceptual measures, such as entrepreneurship (Baum et al., 2014), social integration (Esser, 2001), assimilation (Gordon, 1964) and emotional integration (Mayer and Salovey, 1997), strategies to resolve some of the challenges of migrant entrepreneurs. Furthermore, researchers identified that migrants with emotional intelligence can better manage their emotions and solve problems efficiently to integrate into society (Agbim, 2018; Fatoki, 2019; González-Castro et al., 2020). Emotional intelligence abilities are essential in business engagement, as well as attracting and handling customers, employees, suppliers and partners (Boren, 2010; Cuéllar-Molina et al., 2019; Ezzi et al., 2016). Although several empirical studies (e.g., Agbim, 2018; Fatoki, 2019; Johnson, 2018) have identified a strong link between EI and migrant entrepreneurship, there is no research on how EI enhances migrant entrepreneurship. Subsequently, there has been almost no research on marriage migrant entrepreneurs in Korea and the EI of marriage migrant entrepreneurs. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to identify the fundamental driving forces and obstacles that marriage migrant women entrepreneurs confront in Korea. We have used integration, entrepreneur and emotional theory lenses to identify the underlying motivations and challenges that marriage migrant women entrepreneurs encounter.

This study addresses one crucial research question to explore the role of EI and entrepreneurship associated with the social integration of marriage migrant women in Korea: How do entrepreneurship and emotional intelligence affect the social integration of marriage migrant women in Korea? Concurrently, the three guiding research questions are: (1) How do the marriage migrant women perceive entrepreneurship?; (2) What challenges do marriage migrant women entrepreneurs encounter while doing business in Korea?; and (3) How have they overcome those challenges with emotional intelligence?

The study context

The majority of Damunhwa yoseong or Korean marriage migrant women (hereafter marriage migrant women), are women from the Global South who accepted arranged marriages with Korean men who had difficulties finding local marriage partners (Chung and Lim, 2016; Wijerathna and Hewapathirana, 2022). International marriages between a foreign woman and a Korean man have increased during the last decades, based on comprehensive demographic data. As of 2019, there were 239,159 marriages in Korea—of which, 23,643 were international marriages (Statistics Korea, 2020). Many marriage migrants are from East and Southeast Asia (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Trends in international marriages.

Existing research findings suggest that many marriage migrant women in Korea suffer from discrimination, acculturative stress and social integration issues which lead to severe psychological problems, such as anxiety, depression and lower esteem (Chae et al., 2014; Choi and Park, 2016; Chung and Lim, 2016; Joo, 2015; Jung, 2012; Jung and Sim, 2020; Kim, 2018a; Kim et al., 2015; Lee, 2013; Lee et al., 2014; Ryu, 2016; Wijerathna and Hewapathirana, 2022).

Previous studies have discussed migrant women’s experiences of social inequality and their economic activities as hidden factors that influenced the acculturation and social integration process in the host country (Lee, 2013; Wijerathna and Hewapathirana, 2022). Most of these marriage migrants came to Korea through arranged marriages with the hope of achieving financial stability and sending help back home are struggling with unemployment (Choi and Hyun, 2016; Kim, 2017; Kim and Choi, 2018; Kim et al., 2014). This mismatch between pre-migration and post-migration expectations has been linked to acculturative and social integration issues and psychological stresses (Chae et al., 2014; Jung, 2012; Lee, 2013; Nah et al., 2016; Wijerathna and Hewapathirana, 2022). In addition, their ability to work was hindered by their lack of necessary educational qualifications, technological knowledge and fluency in the Korean language, as well as by their child-care and elder-care responsibilities (Kim, 2017, 2018a, 2018b; Kim and Choi, 2018).

Meanwhile, previous studies have identified that many marriage migrant women were highly interested in entrepreneurship (Seol, 2006) and were willing to engage in self-employment in Korea even though they never had experience in conducting business activities in their home countries due to their disadvantageous position in the labor market (Yoon, 2010, 2016). Entrepreneurship enabled them to become economically self-reliant, gain a sense of achievement and socially integrate into the host country (Choi and Hyun, 2016). The Social Solidarity Bank offered monetary funds, financial education, management technologies, free legal consultations and psychological services to some marriage migrant women who subsequently obtained Korean citizenship. These services improved industrial networking for socially vulnerable groups when operating or preparing to launch micro-enterprises (Kim, 2016).

Related literature

Migrant entrepreneurship

The phenomenon of “international migration” has become a widely discussed topic over the past few decades, with the increase in migration for career purposes, better living conditions and education (Abel and Yildiz, 2022; Asis et al., 2019; Baey and Yeoh, 2018; Liao and Asis, 2020). Migrants have a significant impact on both home and host countries, but economic deprivation, unemployment and unstable employment act as regulatory factors through social determinants such as insufficient education, low income and unfavorable working circumstances. Hence, these factors cause psychological distress and impede social integration in the host country (Andrejuk, 2016; Zhan et al., 2022). Many studies have indicated the link between migration and entrepreneurship, which has led to the emergence of terms such as “migrant entrepreneurship” over the past decades (Duan et al., 2021; Naudé et al., 2017; Sandoz et al., 2022). In brief, migrant entrepreneurship refers to the economic activities carried out by migrants in the host country (Dheer, 2018). Migrant entrepreneurs set up a business as a means of economic survival in a new country (Butler and Greene, 1997); opportunity-migrant entrepreneurs start businesses to take advantage of a business opportunity, while necessity-migrant entrepreneurs establish businesses to overcome various obstacles faced in the host country (Chrysostome, 2010: 138). Many marriage migrants are forced to engage in necessity-entrepreneurship and undertake business activities because of numerous obstacles that prevent them from gaining access to the job market of their host country. “Marriage” serves as a strategy to establish an “insider identity,” helping social integration and assimilation in the host country (Mushonga and Dzingirai, 2020). Scholars argue that marriage migrants face fewer challenges than other migrant entrepreneurs due to their half-native status and the support from their native spouses (Suppatkul et al., 2021).

Conversely, migrant women entrepreneurs encounter more significant obstacles than their male counterparts concerning domestic responsibility, lack of emotional support, marketable skills and managerial experience (Brieger and Gielnik, 2021). Migrant entrepreneurs with high EI tend to be more successful than those who do not display positive emotions because EI improves communication, negotiating, teamwork, decision-making and problem-solving skills (Baron, 2008; Oriarewo et al., 2014). Previous research has identified EI as an influential theoretical construct enabling entrepreneurship and social integration. For example, Agbim’s (2018) research on Lebanese immigrant entrepreneurs in Nigeria identified EI to be significantly related to the dimensions of immigrant entrepreneurship. In another study, Fatoki’s (2019) research with 175 migrant entrepreneurs in South Africa has identified that individuals with high levels of EI were able to cultivate better positive personal interactions which helped to increase personal morale and the morale of others, leading to feelings of personal success and job satisfaction. Webster’s (2020) research on women migrant entrepreneurs from 26 countries has identified emotions to be the focal point in the policy arena and that influenced migrant women entrepreneurs’ access to corporate resources.

Social integration

“Integration” signifies the formation of shared social relationships, attitudes and practices between migrants and the host country community, including newcomers’ socio-economic, political, social and cultural adaptation (Grzymala-Kazlowska and Phillimore, 2018; Wessendorf and Phillimore, 2019). The integration of migrants has typically been considered in terms of social integration from the social, economic and cultural standpoint (Huang et al., 2021; Wu and Xiao, 2020). This paper defines social integration as marriage migrant women’s social, cultural, economic and emotional integration and social relationships in Korean society.

Marriage migrant women in Korea have been excluded from developing a network that may help them obtain resources for their social integration (Kim, 2018a; 2018b). Therefore, the Korean government introduced various programs, including cultural adaptation, educational and counseling programs to help marriage migrants’ social integration (Kim, 2012; Kim et al., 2017; Lee, 2021). Marriage migrant women in Korea were more likely to start their own businesses or employment if they had access to information services or technology education (Kim, 2018a, 2018b).

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is an individual’s capability to comprehend others’ emotions and to utilize this knowledge to direct their perceptions and behavior (Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Emotional intelligence enables individuals to perceive emotional states, improve communication and regulate behaviors, promoting positive social functioning and productive interpersonal relationships (Brackett et al., 2011). Emotional intelligence is defined as the capacity to identify emotional and cognitive processes such as reasoning with emotions, interpreting meaning, and assimilating and establishing correlations between emotions (Sathitsemakul and Calabrese, 2017).

Emotional intelligence enables entrepreneurs to recognize, comprehend and control their own emotions, as well as those of others, which allows them to effectively manage their interactions and relationships with clients and counterparts (Ingram et al., 2019). Therefore, entrepreneurs who possess the ability to recognize, regulate, and comprehend their own and others’ emotions can gain a unique competitive advantage (Ingram et al., 2019). Several researchers have identified that EI enhances entrepreneur success (Allen et al., 2021; Alotaibi and Badawi, 2023; Ingram et al., 2019; Zhou and Bojica, 2017). For example, Alotaibi and Badawi (2023) conducted quantitative research with 306 business owners in Saudi Arabia and identified that a higher level of EI can enhance entrepreneur success. In another study, Zampetakis et al. (2009) discovered that the association between entrepreneurial intention, proactivity and attitude is moderated by EI. Entrepreneurs with high EI increase their ability for accurate decision-making, conflict resolution and effective negotiation (Agbim, 2018). Zhou and Bojica’s (2017) research with 112 entrepreneurs in the Netherlands identified that EI plays different roles in different dimensions of entrepreneurial success and they concluded that emotionally intelligent entrepreneurs are more likely to judge positively their entrepreneur’s success, employee, personal and customer satisfaction, social responsibility, and business performance (Zhou and Bojica, 2017).

Migrant entrepreneurs in Korea

With the surge of the foreign population in Korea, the entrepreneurial activities of migrants have increased in the last decades (DeLancey, 2014; Fee and Rahman, 2014; Rashid and Yun, 2018). Some commercial areas in Korea have been renamed “multicultural-village-special-zones” and “Chinatown,” which have become populated by foreigners (DeLancey, 2014). Migrant entrepreneurs contribute to Korean economic advancement by completing the basic needs of foreign residents in Korea (DeLancey, 2014). Low salaries or unemployment was the primary motivation for many migrant entrepreneurs in Korea to launch their own businesses (Fee and Rahman, 2014). For example, Fee and Rahman (2014) identified how Bangladeshi migrant workers became migrant entrepreneurs in Korea and how they established businesses in different categories such as retail, service, wholesale and export-import trades. Similar to migrant entrepreneurs in other countries, migrant entrepreneurs in Korea faced limited human, financial and social capital that hindered establishing a business in Korea (Yoon and Song, 2009). DeLancey (2014) identified language, different business cultures and financial capital as some of the challenges encountered by African migrant entrepreneurs in Korea.

Theoretical framework

In this paper, we focused only on integration, entrepreneurship and emotional theories and models to explore the role of EI and entrepreneurship associated with the social integration of marriage migrant women in Korea.

Emotional intelligence models

Emotional intelligence models are divided into mixed models (Goleman’s model (1995), Bar-On’s model (1997), and Dulewicz and Higgs’ model (1999)) and ability-based models (Mayer and Salovey’s model (1997) and trait EI model (Petrides and Furnham, 2003)). Goleman’s model (1995) involves various emotional and social skills crucial for leadership and business achievement, while Bar-On’s model (1997) argues that EI is an accumulation of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and behaviors that affect intelligent behavior (Bar-On, 2006). Based on Goleman’s model, EI refers to the human ability to understand themselves and others assisting self-motivation, emotion regulation and interpersonal relations. Meanwhile, Bar-On’s model states that EI—which encompasses a broad range of non-cognitive abilities—influences a person’s capacity to achieve success while managing stress and other demands from their surroundings. Dulewicz and Higgs’ model (1999) defines EI as focused on identifying and controlling one’s feelings and emotions. In this study, EI is knowing how to identify and control your emotions, which involves maintaining and inspiring others to act with integrity, conscientiousness and intuition. On the other hand, Mayer-Salovey’s model (1997)—the ability-based model—defines EI as having the capacity to identify, comprehend, manage and utilize emotions to promote thinking. Our research shows how people may use EI to improve their decision-making, behavior and thinking processes. According to Petrides and Furnham (2003), EI is a personality trait that encompasses a person’s perception of his/her ability to identify, process and utilize emotional information (Sfetcu, 2023). In this research, we believe EI is an amalgamation of self-perceived, emotion-related personality qualities.

Methodology

Ethnographic approach

Ethnography is “a picture of society” that descriptively examines a particular human society or the approach used in an examination concerned with portraying a particular field (Creswell, 2013). It describes social realities to understand the participants’ perspectives in a social group (Jayathilaka, 2021; Saliya, 2022). Based on the purpose of this research and the research questions, the ethnographic method was utilized to explore the role of EI associated with the culture group of marriage migrant women entrepreneurs in Korea.

Data were gathered from 32 marriage migrant women entrepreneurs (see Table 1) through snowball sampling as applied in other published ethnographic studies (Bonfanti, 2021; Gullette, 2019; Kwok, 2020; Lowe et al., 2016). The primary criteria for selecting the participants were that they must be foreign-born women married to Korean men and have been conducting their own business in Korea. In addition, they must have at least five years of experience operating their own business. Male marriage migrant business owners and marriage migrant women employees were excluded even though they may also be influenced by Korean culture and norms. As it was challenging to access marriage migrant entrepreneurs, marriage migrant support centers in Korea helped us to reach them. We spent 24 to 28 months with them in 2017 to 2019, regularly visiting their business places and gradually buying their items to familiarize ourselves with them. The researchers have thoroughly adhered to ethical principles in order to protect the privacy of research participants with the help of the Multicultural Family Support Service Center (MCFSSC) in Korea.

Table 1.

Demographic profile of the participants.

Names/pseudonyms	Age	Country of origin	Number of years living in Korea	Province living in Korea	Number of children	Line of business	Years of business	Highest level of education	Job in country of origin
Binh	38	Vietnam	19	Gyeongsang	2	Bakery shop	6	Middle school	Farmer
Ditya	36	Nepal	17	Chungcheong	3	Garment and fashion	8	High school	Designer
Devi	54	Bangladesh	32	Gyeonggi	4	Restaurant	12	Middle school	Factory worker
Chanthou	46	Cambodia	22	Jeolla	3	Import and export business	9	High school	Shop worker
Linh	57	Vietnam	35	Gyeonggi	5	Restaurant	12	High school	Farmer
Minh	38	Vietnam	17	Chungcheong	2	International marriage broker	6	High school	Shop worker
Piti	34	Thailand	12	Gyeongsang	1	Global food mart	5	High school	Farmer
Mali	47	Laos	16	Jeolla	2	Restaurant and supermarket	6	Middle school	Farmer
Nhu	52	Vietnam	31	Gyeonggi	2	Manpower and translation services	7	Middle school	Nail artist
Momoko	45	Japan	17	Chungcheong	2	Translation services	8	University	Company employee
Diwa	37	Philippines	19	Gyeonggi	2	Mobile shop	7	High school	Shop worker
Xiu	59	China	35	Gyeongsang	2	Restaurant and online shopping mall	10	Middle school	Factory worker
Hao	46	Vietnam	18	Jeolla	2	Global food mart	9	High school	Farmer
Adelina	44	Indonesia	17	Jeolla	3	Home appliances	8	High school	Farmer
Lakshmi	39	Bangladesh	18	Chungcheong	3	Restaurant	5	High school	Farmer
Anchali	35	Thailand	16	Gyeonggi	1	Massage and therapy	7	High school	Farmer
Bayarmaa	48	Mongolia	26	Gyeonggi	2	Restaurant and grocery store	6	Middle school	Factory worker
Mee	35	Thailand	12	Gyeongsang	2	Beauty parlor	6	High school	Shop worker
Fulu	53	China	27	Chungcheong	3	Manpower supply	14	University	Company employee
Farah	37	Malaysia	15	Jeolla	2	Shipping company and grocery	7	University	Line manager
Andrea	37	Philippines	16	Gangwon	4	International marriage broker	7	High school	Farmer
Noriko	33	Japan	10	Chungcheong	1	Grocery store	5	High school	Farmer
Akela	38	Laos	14	Gyeonggi	3	Second hand electronic items	5	Middle school	Farmer
Chanlina	39	Cambodia	17	Chungcheong	2	Global food mart	6	High school	Designer
Yang	45	China	23	Gyeonggi	2	Massage and therapy	11	High school	Shop worker
Charos	43	Uzbekistan	18	Gyeonggi	2	Wholesale business and grocery	5	Middle school	Farmer
Ashley	47	Philippines	26	Chungcheong	3	Manpower supply	9	High school	Farmer
Noi	39	Thailand	12	Chungcheong	2	Hair and nail design	5	High school	Farmer
Sunya	43	Laos	22	Chungcheong	2	Marriage broker	7	High school	Farmer
May	34	Thailand	15	Gyeonggi	2	Massage & therapy and real estate	6	Middle school	Therapist
Ishya	43	Myanmar	16	Jeolla	2	Restaurant	9	Middle school	Factory worker
Dai	45	China	26	Chungcheong	3	Global food mart and convenience store	7	High school	Farmer

Data were collected from 14 countries representing nine provinces in Korea. The participants were aged 35 to 75, have lived in Korea for over 10 years and have been doing business for over five years. Most participants have completed compulsory education and have been working as farmers, designers, factory workers, store workers, nail artists, office workers, line managers, therapists and designers before moving to Korea. The characteristics of the study population are shown in Table 1. Data were gathered through participant observation, field notes and formal-informal individual interviews. We spent time with them in summer camps and multicultural festivals and celebrated New Year and other festivities with them. We started to get close to them while visiting their business places regularly, buying their commodities, eating in their restaurants, having tea or coffee with them and sometimes helping in their shops, restaurants, or workplaces during busy hours.

The interviews began with a brief description of the purpose of the research process between March 2017 and July 2019 in participants’ business places while asking research-related questions in casual conversations. The participants’ questions were welcomed at any point during the interview process. They were informed that their involvement in this research would not affect their business and life in Korea, as the confidentiality of their data would be vigorously protected. Pseudonyms are used in this manuscript to ensure confidentiality. Each interview lasted for three to four hours in English, Korean, Japanese and Chinese, and the sessions were tape-recorded with the participants’ consent (Wolcott, 2005). We recorded what we saw, heard and experienced in field notes.

Data analysis

Following Creswell (2013) and other recently published researchers’ work (Bonfanti, 2021; Gullette, 2019; Kwok, 2020; Lowe et al., 2016), we first read the field notes line by line to identify the patterns and themes. All the field notes were transcribed into a 662-paged Word document. The headings were collected from the margin into a coding sheet. Categories were freely generated—a new category was developed if the content did not fit into an existing category. Some statements were quoted verbatim, but others were summarized and commented on in the researchers’ own words. We coded data into particular categories using headings and subheadings and we reread the codes, field notes and interview transcripts to identify multiple themes, including the subculture’s basic principles (Hammersley and Atkinson, 2007).

Interview transcripts were sent to the participants for their feedback and to check for accuracy. Subsequently, codes and themes were verified by three doctoral students to avoid bias. The results of this study can be transmitted through data generation and detailed descriptions, allowing other researchers to assess the results’ applicability (Lincoln and Guba, 1985).

Findings

The findings were categorized into three clusters of significant themes and subthemes: (a) entrepreneurship as a turning point, (b) challenges in running a business and (c) being successful entrepreneurs.

“New job, new hope”: Entrepreneurship as a turning point

Participants found it challenging to find employment in Korea due to the lack of necessary educational qualifications, technical training, soft skills and language proficiency. They considered “self-employment” a viable option offering higher wages, better working circumstances and an adequate solution to their numerous problems. Binh (38 years old, from Vietnam) is a bakery shop owner who worked in a factory before starting her own business. Her husband had been working at a construction site until he met with an accident and suffered severe injuries that left him incapacitated. Therefore, Binh had to take on all the responsibilities of the family, including earning money and managing household chores and children’s affairs. Finally, she gathered vegetables, nuts and mushrooms from the mountains and sold them in the market:

After my husband’s accident, I couldn’t go to the factory because I always needed someone with him. My children cried all day because they were hungry. I don’t want my children to have the same life as me. They need to go to school and escape this hard life. I needed money. The only option I had was to sell stuffs in the market. I decided to collect vegetables, nuts, and mushrooms from the mountains and sell them at the “ou-il-jang” (5-day market).

Ditya (36 years old, from Nepal), who runs a small garment and fashion boutique, also said that the main reason she started the business was “to escape from strenuous labor and live a better life.” She married her husband at age 19 and has three children. However, after marriage, she realized that her husband was addicted to alcohol and was neglecting the family responsibilities. She worked in her neighbor’s vegetable farms for several years and earned “a little money,” but it was not enough for them to live on. She then started a home-based business in 2011 tailoring nightgowns or pajamas and undergarments and sold them to shop owners:

My husband loves meeting friends and [is] addicted to alcohol. So, he spends all night long with friends drinking and playing cards. He returns home the next day and sleeps until noon. Whenever I asked him to change his habits, he beat me. He had no love for his family. We had nothing to eat, not even a bowl of rice. He is a self-conceited, swollen-headed man who does not want to receive government subsidies. I had no choice but to take up tailoring clothes and selling them to the shop owners.

For Piti (34 years old, from Thailand), her main reasons for starting a business were to escape from the strenuous housework and the suffocating oppressive authority of her mother-in-law. She experienced harassment and discrimination while working in many companies before starting her “global food mart” (grocery store) in 2014. Since her spouse was a descendant of a conservative Korean family, she struggled to adjust since she was required to handle daily household tasks in accordance with the Confucian-based Korean family system. She attempted to secure equal status in her household, expressing her dislike for following the strict rules imposed by her husband, but to no avail.

My husband is a conservative man […] since I married a Korean and lived in Korea, I was told to follow Korean culture. My mother-in-law is the one who authoritatively controls our entire family. One day I complained about this to my husband, he said, “We need to respect our elders and follow whatever they ask us to do here in Korea. Now you are in Korea. So, you have to accept our culture and behave like a Korean.” […] Even though I treated my in-laws like [I was] their own daughter, still, a daughter-in-law is a daughter-in-law! We can’t go beyond the boundary. My mother-in-law asks me over and over again, “Treat your husband well […] do all the housework, obey your husband, and raise many children.” I just wanted to escape from this one day.

Diwa (37 years old, from the Philippines), is a mobile shop owner selling secondhand mobile phones, international phone cards and other portable items to foreigners in Korea. She married her husband at 18 and began living in Korea. She particularly suffered from depression and pressure due to job hunting. Employment difficulties, social isolation, depression and hard work were the main reasons for her to start her own business. Lakshmi (39 years old, from Bangladesh), a restaurant owner offering South Asian cuisine, worked day and night as a 3D (dirty, dangerous, difficult) worker in several factories before starting her own business. Lakshmi, who married her husband at age 21, is the mother of three children. However, her husband and mother-in-law strongly opposed her decision “to work on the grounds” because it would allegedly bring disgrace to the family and clan:

Finding an office job was challenging for a woman like me, who is not good at Korean and lacks other skills needed in Korean labor market. Despite the opposition of my mother-in-law and her husband, I had no choice but to work as a cleaner and domestic worker to cover our living expenses. But my husband once said, “Working as a cleaner is shameful and [brings] disgrace to my family and our ancestors.” I had no choice but to open a restaurant to bring honor to my family and live peacefully with them.

Life-or-death crises and the desire to acquire social dignity led participants to start their businesses. Financial necessity was the main reason for Ditya and Binh to pursue self-employment. For Piti, it was to escape from household chores and the demands of her mother-in-law. In some Korean families, marriage migrant women are not recognized as family members and are treated almost as “maids” who take on all household chores (Chung and Yoo, 2013; Kim et al., 2015). For Diwa, what led her to start her own business were the social isolation, depression, bullying, discrimination and difficulties in finding employment.

Marriage migrant women often feel ignored which may be due to native Koreans’ lack of cultural awareness of other countries (Kim et al., 2015, 2016; Park, 2017). In Lakshmi’s case, her husband’s sense of shame and the desire to bring “honor” to her family were the main reasons for starting her business. This suggests that migrant women’s career paths are also influenced by their husbands and in-laws. However, their careers were able to bring money and a sense of pride to their families. In all these cases, the marriage migrant female entrepreneurs were necessity-migrant entrepreneurs who engaged in business activities for survival.

“Lost in the forest”: Challenges in running a business

Participants stated that they encountered innumerable challenges at different stages of their entrepreneurship. They accepted these hurdles as an opportunity for business success. Chanthou (46 years old, from Cambodia) remarked that when she started her business in 2010, she first feared the ups and downs of running a business. She was unaware of legal procedures such as registering her company, had no access to networks and market research, and lacked soft skills and resources. She therefore started to sell her items to Cambodian migrants in Korea but her profits were minimal. She did not feel secure for over six years before her business grew successfully:

When I started the store, I had very little business knowledge. I didn’t know how to register a company, hire employees or rent a place. When I started my business with the money I had worked hard to save over the past few years, my friends and neighbors asked me, “How can you run a business in Korea without any business knowledge?”; “How do you communicate with customers when you’re not good at Korean?” I knew that if I lost my business, I would have no choice but to start working in the factory again or commit suicide. I feared failure and couldn't relax or sleep well for the past few years until I settled down.

Mee (35 years old, from Thailand), who runs a beauty salon, revealed that her husband and family were against her business because they were worried that she might “meet another man and run away with him.” Therefore, she limited her company to female customers. Whenever she went out to meet her clients or business partners, her husband or mother-in-law always accompanied her. Additionally, she faced many obstacles, including balancing household chores and the business, adapting to Korean culture, society and business systems, as well as hiring new employees:

When I revealed my idea of starting a business, my in-laws were against it. Mainly, my mother-in-law thought I would run off with another guy and avoid doing household chores. Therefore, I had first to gain their trust. So, I decided to limit my business to female customers, hired only female employees, and asked my mother-in-law or another female employee to accompany me whenever I go out to meet my clients. It was so stressful to balance everything—household chores and business.

Akela (38 years old, from Laos) said she felt discouraged and discriminated against by others when she started her business of selling secondhand electrical appliances in 2014:

When I started my business, many people around me asked, “How can a woman run a business?”; “You are a foreigner in Korea!”; “You should think twice before starting a business.”; “You will definitely fail.”; “Women are not suitable for business.”; and “Women lack intelligence, leadership and decision-making ability.”

Furthermore, she said that purchasing equipment and hiring staff at low costs was hampered by her lack of knowledge of the local business landscape. The pressure brought by her poor Korean language skills resulted in psychological trauma, stress and a lack of confidence in communicating with Korean customers and employees. Over time, speaking Korean became necessary to network with locals, more significantly so as her business expanded locally:

The biggest challenge was with the Korean language and culture. I always wondered how to communicate with customers when I couldn’t speak Korean. If I were to do business in my country, I would know everything, including how to treat customers, build networks, what my customers prefer […] I felt helpless every time I met Korean customers. I fell into a depression and thought about quitting my business several times.

May (34 years old, from Thailand) was disadvantaged as a second-class citizen and unable to access vast networks. She also felt the trauma of being unable to adapt to the Korean system. She faced discrimination and harassment from other indigenous Korean women who told her, “Go to your mother/own country and start a business.” Additionally, she was blocked from accessing business networks and funds. Moreover, her husband refused to give her the money to rent her premises. So, she first started a home-based business making leather bags and shoes to sell them online to make “her own money.”

The participants’ business plans seemed to parallel their integration process as they faced challenges due to their lack of knowledge of the Korean language, culture and business systems. They started a business in an unfamiliar environment, juggling many work and household chores and demonstrated higher capabilities. Participants recognized that they were disadvantaged compared to Korean entrepreneurs because they could not access domestic and large-scale networks. Chanthou and Akela were discouraged and discriminated against because they were female entrepreneurs and foreigners. Mee had to limit her services to women only to appease her in-laws.

Becoming successful entrepreneurs

Recognizing their feelings, controlling their emotions, setting motivational goals, understanding other people’s emotions and building networks were beneficial for participants to become successful entrepreneurs.

Piti stated that she was having a hard time becoming a stable entrepreneur in Korea. She understood that she could not run a business if she did not know the Korean business operation system. Therefore, she hired Korean elders (pensioners) with previous business experience as part-time workers. Additionally, she realized that managing her own emotions allowed her to avoid stress when problems arose. Instead, she focused on finding meaningful solutions:

Whatever emotions I am experiencing, I must remember to keep them in balance. I stayed true to myself and my situation and avoided sudden reactions. I realized that I could make mistakes if I didn’t check my emotions. Allowing emotional responses to influence my decisions distorts my decisions. As a result, I make mistakes I wouldn’t otherwise have made.

Charos (43 years old, from Uzbekistan) began to think positively about everything, considered other people’s opinions and claims and practiced being patient while waiting for better circumstances. She realized that aggression or direct action would not bring any positive change. Instead, she practiced time management, anger management and social skills to deal with other people and avoid stress. Her ability to control her emotions and mindset and her ability to develop her skills amidst the inevitable challenges have helped her manage everything from annoying customers to failed launches and difficult conversations:

Even in difficult situations, I can acknowledge my feelings without suppressing them or bursting out at the wrong moment. I must be able to regulate and adjust my emotions when communicating with consumers and other critical business partners. I started to think, “They’re human too, they’re stressed too.” After a heated argument with one of my customers, I had no choice but to agree to his demands to stay connected. I welcome any challenge that helps me learn something new.

Farah (37 years old, from Malaysia) realized that it would be challenging to have profound conversations with people and empathize with them if she did not speak Korean, so she began learning the Korean language and culture. In particular, she practiced “patience” to control herself during times of stress. Interacting with customers also allows her to gain critical insights that can help her tailor her products or services to meet the needs of consumers. She said:

I always aim to be sincere and honest in my customer interactions. I try to understand their emotions and pay attention to their facial expressions to see their feelings and act accordingly. If you empathize, your customers will tell you everything and will be more likely to share their stories. Once these important elements are in place, you are almost certain to see higher sales results.

According to Dai (45 years old, from China), relationships are more formal in a business environment than in other relationships, and “adaptation,” “support” and “forgiveness” were practiced in developing the relationships. She also believes that learning more and learning through experience is critical to an entrepreneur’s success. For example, after recognizing the importance of customer needs, she developed a strategic plan to attract customers while building a business network:

I always learn from my experiences and develop the knowledge and skills necessary for business success. Entrepreneurs often run out of financial resources before they can generate revenue. A long-term plan is needed to help customers move away from social exclusion. I learned how to build good customer relationships, understand their needs and respond to unpredictable situations. That’s why I don’t forget to send “New Year’s snack boxes” to my regular customers with new wishes.

Ishya (43 years old, from Myanmar) remarked that if she observes another person and acts accordingly, she can understand their facial expressions and emotions. She also prayed to the gods to relieve her stress and give her the courage to overcome difficult situations. She learned from other Korean entrepreneurs and applied their strategies to her own business. She calmed herself down by practicing “patience, thinking positively and identifying her weaknesses”:

It is understandable that company owners take more risks than the average individual, but each action must be considered a risk. I am constantly reminded that I am a “foreigner” in this country. As a result, I could manage my moods and impulses, be flexible in my decisions and think twice before acting. You just need to stop momentarily, look at the situation, and come to a more rational conclusion without letting too many positive or negative emotions influence your judgment.

Piti, Charos and Farah have developed the ability to control their emotions and minds despite the inevitable challenges of starting a business. Piti, Farah and Dai began to understand their emotional states and preferred to identify the challenges and find solutions. Charos, Farah, Dai and Ishya were more resilient to stress and applied different strategies to stay motivated. Charos, Farah and Ishya revealed their innermost feelings about their situation and people. Charos and Dai found that people with social skills are better at forming positive relationships with others. Overall, they employed empathy, critical thinking and social skills to devise solutions, form strong bonds and persuade others. They eventually regarded “learning” as a crucial component of entrepreneurial success.

Discussion

This research explored the role of EI and entrepreneurship associated with the social integration of marriage migrant women in Korea. Our key findings are threefold. First, we identified that marriage migrant women entrepreneurs in Korea are necessity-migrant entrepreneurs who started businesses to overcome life-and-death crises and to bring social pride to the family. Second, marriage migrant entrepreneurs are bound by Korean cultural and gender-specific values and struggle with acculturation and assimilation challenges. Third, our participants implemented EI strategies to become successful entrepreneurs, with EI and entrepreneurship contributing to their social integration into Korean society, their host country.

Our findings revealed that entrepreneurship is essential in integrating marriage migrant women in Korea. Moreover, we explored how they use EI strategies to attain entrepreneurial success. EI strategies were described based on the ability to know the respondent’s emotional state and preferences (self-awareness), the ability to manage one’s impulses, states and resources (self-control), and emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate the achievement of goals (motivation). Additionally, awareness of the feelings, emotions, needs and concerns of others (empathy), and their adeptness at inducing desirable responses with others (social skills) were outlined.

Our findings align with previous studies of migrant entrepreneurs’ motivational factors (Munkejord, 2017; Omisakin, 2017). The results of this study are consistent with previous research on migrant women entrepreneurs which showed that migrant women entrepreneurs encounter numerous difficulties in starting and operating a business, such as lack of language and cultural awareness as well as networking and discrimination in an unfamiliar environment (Azmat, 2013; Haandrikman and Webster, 2020; Njaramba et al., 2018; Vaccarino et al., 2011). The findings also confirm Kwok’s (2020) research that entrepreneurship enables marriage migrants to integrate socially into the host country. The current study’s findings corroborate Goleman’s (1998) five elements of EI and indicate how migrant entrepreneurs can increase their EI to integrate socially. Furthermore, the results support the conclusions of Fatoki (2019) and Agbim (2018) that EI is an essential part of migrant entrepreneurs’ success.

Contributions of the study

Emotional intelligence is presented in this study as a crucial element of psychological, social, cultural and economic integration for migrant entrepreneurs, adding to the body of literature on entrepreneurship and migrants. Simultaneously, EI promotes positive social functioning and more productive interpersonal relationships by allowing individuals to better identify their emotional states, be concerned with the perspectives of others, improve communication, and regulate behavior. Our study with 32 women marriage migrant entrepreneurs demonstrates how EI directly impacts marriage migrant entrepreneurs’ social integration, in relation to prior research that found a substantial relationship between EI and the aspects of migrant entrepreneurship. In contrast to other conventional forms of cognitive intelligence, EI can be enhanced through training and development (Mayer et al., 2000; Mayer and Salovey, 1997). Accordingly, the findings of this study will help marriage migrant centers and practitioners to create educational programs to understand individuals’ personal traits and develop emotional intelligence, as well as design training and development programs to improve the entrepreneurial abilities of migrants.

Implications

The findings confirm that migrant entrepreneurship and EI help marriage migrants to integrate successfully into the host country, as depicted in Figure 2. Entrepreneurship helps migrants to integrate economically, while EI helps migrants to integrate and become successful entrepreneurs psychologically. Our findings affirm that entrepreneurship, emotional intelligence and social integration are somewhat interrelated multidimensional constructs.

Figure 2.

Emotional intelligence and entrepreneurship’s influence on migrants’ socio-cultural integration.

According to Goleman (1998), at the most general level, EI refers to the ability to recognize and regulate emotions in ourselves and others. EI can affect an individual’s success in an organization. However, it is necessary to know that EI (emotional control, adjustment, understanding, engagement and knowledge) can positively influence migrant entrepreneurs’ abilities, competencies, spirits and mindsets, morals and ethics, relationships and networking, and competencies.

The findings of this study may help the Korean government, policymakers and counselors of migrant support centers to understand marriage migrant women entrepreneurs’ motivations for starting a business, the challenges they face and how they use EI to achieve business success. The challenges they encountered and their strategies can serve as a reference in establishing policies and designing programs for migrant women entrepreneurs. The study results indicate that to increase the development of migrant entrepreneurship, it is desirable to expose new marriage migrant entrepreneurs to training and development programs to improve their EI, entrepreneurial behavior, capabilities, networking attitudes and success mindset. The ultimate effect of these activities is to enhance the development of immigrant entrepreneurship. The Korean government can create a policy plan to help overcome the challenges and support the social integration of marriage migrant families by funding new businesses, facilitating socio-cultural training and managerial skill training, and building social-relationship skills.

Limitations and future research

This study was limited to 32 migrant women entrepreneurs in nine provinces of Korea. Limiting to the experiences of marriage migrant women from Asian countries may underrepresent those of marriage migrant women entrepreneurs from countries in Europe and other countries. Furthermore, participants’ social desirability bias or fear of publicly discussing their experiences may influence their responses. To avoid this, interviews were conducted in a less structured and formal setting. Future research could be conducted targeting women marriage migrant entrepreneurs in countries that accept a large number of marriage migrant brides. Second, quantitative research could be conducted to determine the barriers and strategies of women marriage immigrant entrepreneurs from Europe, Africa and other countries in Asia. Third, special attention is needed on marriage immigrant entrepreneurs in rural areas of Korea because their experience may differ from those who conduct business in urban areas. Future research could also study the marriage migrant women’s impact of home country occupation and experience on current entrepreneurial activity.

Conclusion

This study examined the role of EI in marriage migrant women’s entrepreneurship. Our research highlighted that entrepreneurship presents a unique work environment for marriage migrants who can effectively manage themselves and others. The findings of this study are broadly applicable to marriage migrants and migrant entrepreneurs in Asian and other countries. Entrepreneurship allows marriage migrants to design their life course by being self-employed. This development requires social awareness and relationship management abilities to work through one’s own emotions and influence others. According to the study, EI can be learned and practiced, which enables individuals to regulate behavior and promote positive social functioning and productive interpersonal relationships. Therefore, those who want to start and succeed in a business can benefit from emotional skills training.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful for the insightful comments and suggestions provided by the two anonymous reviewers and the Editorial team of the Journal. Their generosity and expertise have improved this study in numerous ways.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Mandari Pabasara Wijerathna

Yong-Byoung Chae

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