Resilience to COVID-19 challenges: Lessons for school psychologists serving school-attending youth with experiences of marginalization

Abstract

This special issue is focused on the lessons learned from the COVID-19 health crisis, showcasing new cross-cultural research from different countries, such as rural/urban US, South Africa, and Australia. The aim οf the special issue is to highlight new knowledge related to pandemic-related impacts, as well as underscore variables that will promote children's resilience and especially vulnerable and marginalized children. We argue that all adults associated with schools (e.g., teachers, school psychologists, administrators, aides, parents, and social workers) need to synergize in creating a caring school community that is purposefully committed to supporting student resilience, especially among students with experiences of marginalization. A multisystemic resilience approach has been adopted and the focus has been on caring adults in the school communities and how they can support the most vulnerable students if the adults (school psychologists parents, caregivers, teachers, and other role-players) take co-ownership of championing student resilience in times of crisis. The studies included in this special issue highlight important issues especially for school psychologists, such as girls’ school engagement as a buffering factor to school disruptions, the value of multigenerational supports, the value of spirituality in dealing with crises, the sense of supportive connectedness with schools and finally teacher empowerment to support student wellbeing.

Keywords

multisystemic resilience approach COVID-19 school communities marginalized youth international community of caring

The World Health Organization's 11 March 2020 announcement of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic sparked a worldwide lockdown to limit transmission of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). As part of this attempt to curb transmission, many schools closed for protracted periods (Azevedo et al., 2020). Μοre than 2 years after the COVID-19 pandemic crisis started, educational and social scientists are still assessing the impact of school closures and other pandemic-related challenges on the mental health of students, teachers, parents, and society as a whole. Because the COVID-19 pandemic is unlikely to be the last pandemic to disrupt students’ lives (Michie & West, 2021), it is crucial that school psychologists (SPs) understand how pandemics impact young people and their social ecologies and what enables resilience in those impacts. SPs are well-positioned to support students, their families, and their teachers to manage pandemic-related challenges (Nickerson & Sulkowski, 2021).

Hence, the focus of this special issue of School Psychology International. It explores the social and ecological resources that mattered for the resilience of marginalized students to COVID-19 challenges and nudges SPs to commit to championing the resilience of young people who are often disproportionately vulnerable. SPs have a special duty to support the resilience of young people exposed to social injustices (e.g., poverty, structural violence, inequitable education, and healthcare access, discrimination relating to gender, ability/disability, or religion) and related experiences of marginalization (Noltemeyer & Grapin, 2021). This duty is heightened in extra-challenging times, such as pandemics, extreme weather events, and other disasters.

Pandemic-related impacts reported for students

While there have been occasional reports of young people benefitting from the lockdown (Chawla et al., 2021), pandemic-related impacts appear to have been mostly negative. For example, various studies with diverse populations of young people have reported reduced sleep time and quality (Ho & Lee, 2022); heightened emotional distress (including symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression; Bourion-Bedes et al., 2021; Cielo et al., 2021; Idowu et al., 2020; Islam et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2020; Liang et al., 2020), and significant loneliness (Loades et al., 2020). Losses in learning were also reported, more especially for young people with limited or no access to technology, the internet, or reliable electricity (Giannini, 2020; Van Lancker & Parolin, 2020). Further, many young people who were dependent on school nutrition programs faced hunger when their schools closed (de Miranda et al., 2020).

COVID-19 impacts were disproportionately worse for young people with less privilege (i.e., young people with experiences of marginalization). For instance, a joint Unesco-Unicef World Bank survey (World Bank Report, 2020) reported that many children in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) did not participate in remote learning, with about a third of low-income countries reporting that 50% of children had not been reached. Many feared that this would have knock-on school-disengagement effects. Similarly, Song et al. (2021) underlined that the impact of COVID-19 was more significant for children who are more typically exposed to marginalization, including students with special needs and children from visible minority groups. Among these young people, mental health support requests increased by almost a third during COVID-19 and suicide rates for girls rose by almost 51% in US samples.

Parents and teachers of school-going young people also experienced negative impacts. For instance, many teachers in the USA reported heightened stress and that pandemic-related challenges in their profession demanded that they work harder and longer hours (Nickerson & Sulkowski, 2021). Similarly, Briesch et al. (2021) underlined, among other findings, the elevated stress parents experienced while trying to navigate homeschool routines with significant stress associated with time to support their children and communication with teachers and school administrators. Stressed parents often reported poorer mental health, with related concerns about the increased potential for child maltreatment (Brown et al., 2020).

Further, parents with marginalization experiences were typically more negatively impacted by lockdown-related challenges. Amongst others, this included parents challenged by low socioeconomic status or mental illness (Weeland et al., 2021). Parents caring for children with disabilities were also disproportionately affected (Hochman et al., 2022).

In short, pandemic-related challenges potentiated diminished parent and teacher capacity to support student resilience, more so for those challenged by marginalization experiences. Given this reality, and reports that pandemic-related impacts were mostly negative and likely to be long-lasting (Lee, 2020; Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021; Samji et al., 2022), SPs need to better understand how to support students to manage COVID-19 impacts resiliently.

Resilience to pandemic-related impacts

Resilience is the capacity to adjust well to significant stress (Masten, 2014). Typically, that capacity requires a mix of resources that spans a range of systems, including biological, psychological, social, and ecological ones (Masten et al., 2021; Ungar & Theron, 2020). Studies of youth resilience to pandemic-related challenges also report a mix of resilience-enabling resources. For example, in their study with 4,936 young people living in Quebec, Hebert et al. (2022) found that young people followed diverse pathways of adaptation to pandemic-related challenges. What distinguished pathways of resilience and less psychological distress from pathways associated with increased vulnerability and greater psychological distress was young people's access to protective resources, both within themselves (e.g., capacity to regulate their emotions) and their social ecology (e.g., accessible social support). A mix of resources was also reported in a study of what supported the resilience of young people challenged by lockdown and living in a township in South Africa (Theron et al., 2021). Amongst others, these included hopeful meaning making, access to caring others, reliable electricity and water supplies, and spaces to exercise.

As illustrated by these two studies (Hebert et al., 2022; Theron et al., 2021), while there were commonalities in what enabled resilience to the pandemic's impacts (i.e., personal and social resources), the resources that young people reported were not identical. This fits resilience science's more recent attention to how developmental stage and situational and cultural context can heighten the protective value of specific protective resources (Masten et al., 2021; Ungar & Theron, 2020; Yoon et al., 2021), Given this complexity, if SPs want to optimize how they support student resilience to pandemic impacts, then they need to investigate which resources have greater protective value for specific groups of students at lower and higher levels of risk exposure rather than generalize what is known about commonly occurring resilience-enabling resources (Ungar, 2019).

In particular, and as per the focus on this special issue of School Psychology International, SPs need to consider which resources matter for students with experiences of systemic marginalization to show resilience to pandemic impacts. While students living in LMIC countries are more likely to experience marginalization, they are less likely to be represented in research studies (Blum & Boyden, 2018). Their typical under-representation in research studies means that what might best support their resilience is incompletely understood (Theron, 2020). Similarly, there is limited understanding of what supports the resilience of young people who are differently abled (Clark & Adams, 2022).

Schools as caring communities with a commitment to student resilience

How might SPs support the resilience of students who are marginalized and challenged by pandemic-related stressors? We use this special issue to advocate that one way to do so is to create a caring school community in which school-related adult role-players (e.g., teachers, school psychologists, administrators, aides, parents) co-champion student resilience. Put differently, these adults need to work together to create a caring school community that is purposefully committed to supporting student resilience, more especially the resilience of students with experiences of marginalization. This does not mean that students themselves cannot and do not contribute to their and other students’ resilience and that their contributions should not be recognized. Instead, it means that student resilience should be conceptualized as a partnered or collaborative process in which school-related adults play an important role.

The papers in this special issue provide some pointers to how the adults associated with a school community could form a caring whole and support the resilience of students challenged by various forms of marginalization. While the geographical contexts reported in the papers on this resilience-themed issue vary (e.g., students from rural/urban USA [Chatlos et al., 2022; Goodwin et al., 2022]; remote Australia [McCalman et al., 2022], and South Africa [Mohangi, 2022; Pillay, 2022; Theron et al., 2022]), as do the marginalization experiences (e.g., disability or special education needs ([Chatlos et al., 2022; Goodwin et al., 2022], rurality/remote location [Chatlos et al., 2022; McCalman et al., 2022], visible minority [Goodwin et al., 2022], and/or structural disadvantage [Mohangi, 2022; Pillay, 2022; Theron et al., 2022]), the capacity of caregivers and school staff to support student resilience during the pandemic was invariant. For instance, Goodwin et al. (2022) reported mental health benefits for American elementary school students and their caregivers when elementary school teachers and caregivers shared a sense of supportive connectedness. Likewise, McCalman et al. (2022) reported wellbeing benefits for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students following teacher capacity to better support student wellbeing. Similarly, Theron et al. (2022) reported that higher pre-pandemic school engagement buffered the negative effects of pandemic-related school disruptions for a sample of girl students in a disadvantaged South African community. Not surprisingly, higher school engagement was associated with student perceptions of a caring school community (i.e., with teacher kindness and school being a safe space).

While the papers in this special issue showed that parents, other caregivers (e.g., grandparents—see Mohangi, 2022), and teachers are important co-champions of student resilience, they also flagged the importance of SPs nurturing the resilience of these co-champions. Luthar et al. (2020) have been vocal in this regard. The special issue paper by McCalman et al. (2022) was a timely reminder that parents and school staff capacity to champion student resilience is responsive to intervention. Drawing on the implementation of the Schools Up North (SUN) program in remote Australia during the pandemic-related lockdown, the McCalman et al. (2022) paper showed that purposeful capacitation of teachers and school staff yields dividends for student wellbeing. This is particularly important in contexts, like rural Australia, where SPs are rare. Following Luthar et al. (2020), the other special issue papers (Chatlos et al., 2022; Goodwin et al., 2022; Mohangi, 2022; Pillay, 2022; Theron et al., 2022) cautioned against taking school staff and parent/caregiver capacity to champion resilience in challenged times (like pandemics) for granted.

Sadly, however, teachers and caregivers are often neglected in interventions designed to promote student resilience (Luthar et al., 2020). Adopting a multisystemic resilience promotion perspective means SPs need to support “the forgotten” stakeholders such as parents, educators, and caregivers (Matsopoulos & Luthar, 2020), more especially when these adults are socially and structurally marginalized or care for/teach students who are. SPs need to find meaningful ways to support parents/caregivers and teachers to deal with marginalization-related stressors (Wexler et al., 2009). Put differently, just supporting students—without the support of the adults that play pivotal roles in their lives—is likely to be suboptimal, also in COVID-challenged times and their aftermath.

An important additional SP task in the post-COVID era is to support teachers to champion the resilience of students (especially marginalized students) that were impacted by the pandemic (e.g., children who lost a parent to COVID or who are challenged by long-COVID). In this regard—and following from the Theron et al. (2022) paper on this themed issue—there is likely to be merit in SPs focus on developing teachers’ capacity to better support students (especially girl students) to be school engaged. Similarly, and as reported in the McCalman et al. (2022) paper on this themed issue, there is resilience-enabling value in enhancing teacher capability to provide contextually relevant mental health support. To that end, SPs could facilitate teacher professional development to better understand, engage and support students (e.g., by training of teachers in Social Emotional Learning [SEL] and trauma-informed approaches; Abramson, 2022).

A caring school community should support students of all genders. Failure to do so might privilege students whose gendered socialization might encourage them to be more responsive to supportive interaction (Roorda et al., 2011). Such gendered patterns were prominent in the paper by Theron et al. (2022): historic levels of higher school engagement protected girls (but not boys) against the negative impacts that school disruptions hold for subsequent school engagement. Gendered resilience patterns were also reported in Pillay's (2022) study, which focused on the resilience of 4,165 students (majority Black African) in Grades 4 to 12 in South Africa. Compared with boy students, Pillay's study showed that girl students showed more resilience. Like Theron et al. (2022), Pillay (2022) used this finding to advocate for the importance of SPs sustaining girl students’ resilience but also of finding meaningful ways of enabling the resilience of boy students. Further, like Yoon et al. (2021), Pillay's paper pointed to the salience of the developmental stage to meaningful ways of enabling student resilience.

In addition to gender and developmental stage, situational and cultural context is key to understanding how to meaningfully support student resilience (Ungar & Theron, 2020). As noted earlier, this is especially true when SPs work with students who are under-represented in the resilience and developmental literature (Blum & Boyden, 2018). In this regard, the papers by Goodwin et al. (2022), McCalman et al. (2022), Mohangi (2022), and Pillay (2022) directed attention to how cultural context shapes which resources are valued by students and how cultural responsiveness plays into resilience. For instance, Mohangi's (2022) study, which included five African family units, underscored the importance of extended family members (like grandparents) to how students’ households coped with family violence and acute financial stress. In addition, some participants in Mohangi's (2022) study referred to their grandparents teaching them to pray. Participants in Pillay's (2022) study also reported that spiritual resources were important resilience enablers. These resources fit their participants’ cultural context: the extended family system and spirituality are key parts of traditional African ways-of-being and many South African families socialize their children to value these resources. Drawing on culturally relevant resources should support SPs to better champion the resilience of their students, probably even more so when students have experienced marginalization on account of their cultural identity. That was certainly evident in the SUN program that McCalman et al. (2022) reported on in this special issue. Its resilience-enabling capacity was strengthened by it being purposefully designed to “provide culturally capable” supports. Even though this positive association was disputed in this special issue paper by Goodwin et al. (2022), these authors nevertheless concluded that future research must further investigate the complex interplay of school-based culturally responsive practices and student mental health resilience. In the interim, we encourage SPs to prioritize culturally relevant resources as they co-build caring school communities. Doing so would fit with the resilience literature (Ungar & Theron, 2020), developments in resilience-supporting school programs (e.g., in Asia; Borah & Sultana, 2023), and recommendations for championing resilience (Chakradhar et al., 2022).

When SPs pay attention to the gender, developmental and contextual factors that matter for the resilience of specific groups of students—and understand how these factors play into the mix of resources that matters for student resilience—they move away from the myth of one-size-fits-all approaches to championing resilience. This is especially important when working with students who have experienced marginalization. In addition to being sensitive to how gender, developmental stage, and situational/cultural context play into student resilience, practitioners, need to distinguish between the levels of risk (high, medium, or low) that students are exposed to and tailor interventions to students’ unique needs (Korte et al., 2021; Ungar, 2019). The latter was overlooked in the papers of this special issue.

Similarly missing from the papers in this resilience-themed issue was a reference to the resilience-enabling value of resources in the built or natural environment. An exception was McCalman et al.’s (2022) reporting of the value of teachers in their study distributing laptops and/or paper-based resources to students who were learning from home, but this seemed to be more about remedying household and built environment deficits than identifying ecological assets. Similarly, Mohangi (2022) mentioned that relatives allowed child participants to use their laptops to complete school tasks. Still, in both these studies the emphasis was on adults supporting access to technology. In the context of COVID and related school disruptions, for instance, and following Giannini (2020) and Van Lancker and Parolin (2020), the silence around a built environment with access to technology or high-speed internet was a notable omission. While this relative inattention might reflect the general inattention to ecological resources of resilience (Ungar & Theron, 2020), it is nevertheless a reminder to SPs to consider resources that go beyond the traditional emphasis on relationships when thinking about how best to create caring school communities. In the context of school disruptions, resources in the built environment of students’ households and neighborhoods must count for resilience.

Similarly, none of the papers reported the resilience-enabling value of whole-school or school-community approaches to supporting student resilience. For example, there is potential merit in SPs supporting schools to be ready to face crises, like the COVID pandemic, by using evidence-informed models (e.g., NASP’s PREPaRE model; Nickerson & Sulkowski, 2021). The PREPaRE model (Nickerson & Sulkowski, 2021) integrates school personnel and community provider roles in facilitating school-based crisis preparedness and response activities. The benefit of such a crisis-intervention model is that schools are better prepared to enable/sustain student resilience.

Conclusion

In closing, we want to underscore our main argument that all adults associated with schools (e.g., teachers, school psychologists, administrators, aides, parents, social workers) need to synergize in creating a caring school community that is purposefully committed to supporting student resilience, more especially among students with experiences of marginalization. Caring for vulnerable students in ways that will enable and sustain their resilience means heeding their voices and attending to their behavior for clues of their mental health status (Rinaldi, 2006). It also means being sensitive to the resource mix—and how that mix intersects with gender, developmental stage, and situational and cultural context—that matters for their resilience and making that resource mix accessible in meaningful ways. While SPs are key in this process, caring for students in collaboration with their parents/caregivers, teachers, and other role-players will amplify SP efforts to champion student resilience.

To that end, it is advisable to adopt a multisystemic resilience approach (Ungar & Theron, 2020), focus on listening to children's voices (Rinaldi, 2006), and renew our commitment to championing the resilience of students with experiences of marginalization in this post-COVID era. Given predictions of continued global challenges (Michie & West, 2021) this commitment will need to extend to subsequent crises (e.g., future pandemics, war, or extreme weather events). As caring adults in the school communities, we can best support our most vulnerable students if we (SPIs parents, caregivers, teachers, and other role-players) take co-ownership of championing student resilience in times of crisis.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Anastassios Matsopoulos

Linda Theron

Author biographies

Anastassios Matsopoulos, is a permanently certified school psychologist in New York State, US since 1991 and has been faculty of School Psychology in various master's and doctoral level programs in the US. Currently, he is an associate professor of School Psychology at the University of Crete, Greece, and Director of the School Psychology Research Lab/Unit at the University of Crete Research Center (UCRC). In the last 30 years, Dr. Matsopoulos has trained school psychologists, teachers, and preschool teachers in countries, such as Cyprus, Greece, Latvia, Canada, Malta, Italy (& Sardinia), and the USA and has done international work via ISPA with Accreditation Committee and the Parent Education and Family Resilience interest group. He is the founder and first president of the Hellenic Association of School Psychology (HASP), the first professional association of School Psychologists in Greece.

Linda Theron, has an enduring interest in the resilience of children and youth who resist the negative impacts of disabling circumstances, experiences, or conditions, and the role of situational and cultural dynamics in child and youth processes of positive adjustment. She is an extraordinary professor: at Optentia Research Entity, North-West University MASSAf, and an associate editor: Child Abuse & Neglect in the Journal of Adolescent Research. She is a full professor at the Department of Educational Psychology, University of Pretoria, South Africa.

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