Career Paths and Professionalism: Examining ICMA Credentials among City Managers

Abstract

The emphasis on professionalism in public administration has highlighted the importance of city managers and their role in managing cities effectively. While there are various avenues for city managers to improve their professionalism, such as a Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree, there has been limited research on other organizations that facilitate professionalism. This paper focuses on the International City/County Management Association (ICMA) credentialing program. ICMA is a nationally recognized organization that helps dictate professional norms among city managers. The purpose of this paper is to explore the motivations of city managers who pursue additional credentials and to identify the types of city managers who are more likely to attain professional certification. I argue that the ambition of city managers, as measured through their career path, is related to their pursuit of professionalism. Specifically, city managers with a diagonal career path are more likely to attain additional professional certification compared to those with a ladder career path because it signals their promising ability to future employers, namely city councils. To test this hypothesis, this paper uses two datasets. The first dataset examines the career paths of city managers in California, Florida, and North Carolina from 2012 to 2023. The second dataset focuses on newly hired chief administrators from 2021 to 2023 across the United States, drawing data from the ICMA job advertising information. From these two datasets, I find that city managers with diagonal career paths are more likely to possess ICMA credentials than those with ladder career paths.

Keywords

professionalism ambition theory public managers career path local government

Introduction

The role of city managers is indispensable within the context of modern urban administration, as they are responsible for overseeing policy implementation and managing local government resources. With the growth of urban populations and the increasing complexity of local issues, the need for city managers to operate governments with maximum effectiveness and efficiency has become increasingly important (Nelson & Afonoso, 2019; Svara, 1990). In light of the growing demand for expertise, professional management skills have become imperative, leading to a heightened demand for highly skilled city managers (Boise & Rowe, 1974; Liao & Ma, 2019; Nalbandian, 1991). Recognizing the significance of professionalism in the careers of city managers, this research examines the pursuit of professional development among city managers, specifically focusing on the International City and County Management Association credentialing program.

City managers, alongside the council-manager form of government, were established with a specific mission and intent. During the progressive era, local governments underwent a significant transformation inspired by reformers who advocated separating public administration from politics (Cayer et al., 2014; Howard et al., 2015; Svara & Watson, 2010). This reform movement led to the initiation of the council-manager form of government, which many local governments gradually adopted. The council-manager form of government was designed to enhance the efficiency of local governments by separating administrative functions from political considerations while promoting the implementation of policies based on scientific evidence and professional norms (Cayer et al., 2014).

Fulfilling the purpose of the council-manager form of government, many city managers have shown a commitment to professionalism in their roles. This commitment is exemplified by the pursuit of advanced educational degrees, such as the Master of Public Administration, which is a popular qualification among city managers (Boise & Rowe, 1974; Humphrey, 2021; Mani, 2014; Hatcher et al., 2022; Watson & Hassett, 2004). Moreover, national and regional organizations, such as the International City/County Management Association (ICMA), provide opportunities for city managers to enhance their professional development. ICMA began in 1914, only two years after the first city adopted the council-manager form of government, and it became the most popular organization for administrators to share information and improve their skills. Likewise, despite the availability of numerous programs for city managers, not all actively engage in these opportunities to advance their professionalism. For instance, some city managers dedicate their additional time and effort to obtain an MPA, and others actively make use of programs offered by the ICMA, but not everyone invests the same effort to improve their professionalism. There is, however, a lack of research on the different motivations to pursue professionalism, leaving a gap in understanding which factors motivate city managers to pursue professionalism, while current research tends to focus on evaluating the effectiveness of these professional programs.

In this paper, to examine the varying degrees of motivation driving city managers to pursue professionalism, I rely on the public administration literature concerning career paths and ambition theory. The career paths of city managers have been an important topic for some time, as their hiring and role are distinct from those of elected officials. Unlike elected chief administrative officials, city managers are typically hired by contract and have different career trajectories. Some may move from city to city more frequently, while others may stay in one city for an extended period depending on their performance (Hatcher et al., 2022; Watson & Hassett, 2004). The career paths of city managers can be heterogeneous due to factors such as their performance or relationships with elected officials (Clinger et al., 2008; Lee and Lee, 2021). Beyond these exogenous factors, such as performance and relationships with employers, endogenous factors, specifically city managers’ ambition, also play a key role in shaping their career paths, as studied in previous literature (Floro, 1955; Hatcher et al., 2022; Teodoro, 2011).

While ambition influences the career paths of appointed administrators, scholars have focused on the varying behaviors these administrators exhibit based on their chosen career trajectories. Much of the research on ambition and career paths, which emphasizes the strategic behaviors of appointed chief administrators employed to achieve career success, has focused predominantly on organizational-level achievements, such as implementing innovative policies and managing their governments efficiently (Leroux & Pandey, 2011; Teodoro, 2011). While city managers undeniably play a critical role in policy implementation, decisions made at the organizational level are influenced by numerous institutional factors that could unintentionally affect evaluations of city managers’ efforts related to their career objectives. For this reason, this paper will test the relationship between career paths and individual-level efforts, specifically city managers’ efforts to enhance their professionalism for career success, to contribute to a deeper understanding of the ambitions and behaviors of city managers.

In the council-manager form of government, professionalism is a successful strategy that city managers on specific career paths can pursue. Professional certification is not just a symbolic title but a credential, like education, that signifies that the individual has the necessary skills and knowledge to fulfill the tasks in the profession effectively. Professionalism can influence the perception and belief of city managers, as they are more likely to follow established norms of the profession when making decisions (Perry 1997, 2007; Schneider & Teske, 1992; Teodoro, 2014). Previous research has found that organizations prefer candidates with professional certifications and are more likely to offer them opportunities for promotion (Ishida et al., 1997). Therefore, pursuing professionalism can be a viable way for city managers to advance their careers and achieve their career goals. Given the theoretical assumption, this paper tests whether city managers on the diagonal career path are more likely to have professional certification.

This paper used two distinct datasets to examine the stated hypothesis empirically. The first dataset includes the career paths of city managers in California, Florida, and North Carolina from 2012 to 2023. The second dataset focuses on recently appointed city managers in the United States from 2022 to March 2023. For the second dataset, job posting information from the ICMA website is used to confirm whether the top-appointed administrators have been hired recently. Furthermore, I used the ICMA (International City/County Management Association) certification to measure the tendency to pursue professionalism. Through the analysis of these unique datasets, a significant finding indicates that city managers on the diagonal career path are more likely to possess professional certification. This finding supports the hypothesis that diverse career aspirations are closely related to the motivation of appointed chief administrators to pursue professionalization.

City Manager Career Paths

Research on the career paths of city managers has been central to the public administration literature on city management. The labor market's hiring system for city managers holds vital implications for understanding the workings of the council-manager form of government. The typical categorization of career paths for city managers generally revolves around two approaches: “moving” and “staying” (Floro, 1955). In this traditional approach, city managers opt to pursue a single-city career or relocate to another city to improve their skills and experiences. This choice of career path carries significant implications for how governments are operated. City managers who pursue the “advancement by moving” approach tend to accomplish significant accomplishments during their relatively short tenure in each city. They proceed cautiously, ensuring they do not exploit the locality for quick and visible improvements without considering the city's long-range development. Conversely, “one-city” managers tend to remain in a single city for a prolonged period and focus on implementing multifaceted changes in the community (Floro, 1955).

Subsequent research has resulted in identifying more refined and detailed career paths, building upon the simple categorization of career paths. These refined career paths have shed new light on city managers’ hiring and advancement practices. The conventional career development path for city managers involves starting in a small town and moving to larger cities with better benefits (Watson & Hassett, 2004). City managers in the conventional career path typically start their career journey in administrative positions, such as deputy city manager or assistant city manager. However, subsequent research suggests that alternative career paths have emerged, such as moving up from a department directorship to a city manager (DeSantis & Newell, 1996; Watson & Hassett, 2004). The alternative career path of city managers implies a diversified approach to attaining the city manager position. However, it is common for most city managers on alternative paths to accumulate experience in general management positions, such as assistant or deputy city managers, before assuming the role of city manager as well. Furthermore, potential candidates for city manager positions are now expected to hold a college education and have prior experience as interns or assistants to city managers. This is a significant shift from the past, where formal education and prior experience were not always required for city manager positions (Watson & Hassett, 2004).

Recent scholarship has challenged earlier research suggesting that most city managers follow conventional career paths. Instead, studies have highlighted a growing trend of city managers advancing to top administrative positions through internal promotion (Buckwalter & Parsons, 2000). This trend is particularly evident in municipalities with populations over 100,000, where Watson and Hassett (2004) found that around fifty percent of city managers were promoted from within. This suggests that larger cities are potentially better equipped to provide opportunities for career development and training to aspiring city managers (Watson & Hassett, 2003, 2004). Moreover, more detailed categories of career paths have been identified, such as “ladder climbers,” “lateral movers,” “long servers,” and “single-city careerists” (Watson & Hassett, 2004). Ultimately, however, these categories can be distilled into two main career paths: city managers who are promoted internally and those who advance through moving between cities. These findings indicate that while the traditional “moving” approach remains popular, the “staying” approach is fairly popular in larger municipalities, where internal promotion can provide a more stable and rewarding career trajectory. Based on the previous literature, this study aims to elucidate the trajectory of city managers’ career paths and explore the underlying motivations that drive their career choices. Existing research implies that the city managers’ career path is deeply related to the city managers’ ambition. The types of ambition that are associated with the types of career paths have been studied over time through ambition theory.

Ambition Theory

The career path of city managers can be strongly influenced by their career ambition, a central concept in ambition theory. According to conventional assumptions, an individual's ambition can drive political and administrative behavior (Fox & Lawless, 2005; Rohde, 1979; Teodoro, 2011). Therefore, the ambition of city managers can be closely related to their career behaviors. Schlesinger's (1966) definition of ambition proposes that individuals may have different types of ambitions that influence their career choices. Specifically, he suggests three types of ambitions: progressive, static, and discrete. Progressive ambition refers to individuals who aspire to climb up the career ladder, while static ambition is characterized by a desire to remain in the same position for a longer period. Discrete ambition refers to an individual's desire to retain a particular office for a specific term (Herrick & Moore, 1993; Schlesinger, 1966). These three types of ambition can apply to the motivation of city managers to pursue distinct careers.

The different ambitions of individuals can lead to different career paths for city managers. As Watson and Hassett (2004) explained, city managers may have four different career paths: “ladder climbers,” “lateral movers,” “long servers,” and “single-city careerists.” When these different career paths are matched with Schlesinger's definition of ambition, all four career paths can be categorized as having a progressive ambition, as they all strive to be promoted to the top appointed position. However, they take different routes to arrive at the top position. “Ladder climbers” and “lateral movers” are city managers with progressive ambition using the “advancement by moving” approach, while “long servers” and “single-city careerists” are city managers with static ambition or less progressive ambition using the “staying” approach (Floro, 1955). This categorization can be used to analyze the strategies of city managers with different career paths and motivations.

City councils appoint city managers, who may have different preferences when they hire city managers. Therefore, city managers should behave differently to satisfy their ambition because they have distinct methods of achieving either the goal of staying or climbing up to a better position (Leroux & Pandey, 2011; Teske & Schneider, 1994). Teodoro (2011) explains the role of ambition in answering why policy entrepreneurs can appear in some governments but not others. The principal argument of Teodoro's theory is that chief administrative officials who want to climb up to a better position will have a stronger motivation to implement innovative policies in line with professional norms to signal their professionalism under a specific advancement structure where the local government hires their candidate on a diagonal career path (Teodoro 2009, 2011). City managers are also subject to this mechanism. Since city managers have to demonstrate their ability, competence, and professionalism to maximize their chances of being hired by a new employer, their successful implementation of innovative policies can serve as evidence of their expertise to potential council members (Gazley, 2014; Kearney et al., 2000; Liao & Ma, 2019; Meier & O’Toole, 2002; Suarez, 2010).

Similarly, the professional reputation of external candidates in the city managers’ labor market is influenced by factors such as higher education, additional credentials, and past working experience. Elected officials, who often lack in-depth knowledge of the specific fields they are hiring for, rely on these credentials and professional reputations to ensure the qualifications of the candidates (Teodoro, 2011). Consequently, these perceptible indicators that reflect the professional attributes of city managers play a significant role in the selection process conducted by elected officials when recruiting city managers. Moreover, these indicators can also increase the likelihood of candidates being offered new positions.

Additionally, the successful experiences of established city managers serve as valuable examples for others in the field. City managers can adapt their strategies to achieve their career goals as they observe and learn from these successful precedents. This adaptation process further reinforces the ambition of city managers to pursue professionalism, particularly when seeking career advancement by moving to larger cities with better benefits. These ambitious city managers are more inclined to engage in professional activities, such as obtaining professional certifications and implementing policies aligned with professional norms (Teodoro, 2011).

Teodoro (2011) tests this hypothesis using the career path of chief police officials and the likelihood of initiating CALEA (The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies) accreditation. The study finds that police departments led by chiefs who had previously worked in CALEA-accredited departments were more likely to seek CALEA accreditation for the city. This suggests that the adaptation process is a key factor in reinforcing the tendency of city managers with progressive ambition to pursue professionalism.

The career paths city managers choose can influence their approach to professional development and their relationship with the city council. City managers who seek to attain top positions through advancement may prioritize showing their abilities and achievements to potential employers, such as the city council. They may pursue additional certifications or qualifications to demonstrate their expertise in specific areas. On the other hand, city managers with a static ambition or a focus on long-term career growth within their current city may prioritize building strong and positive relationships with council members to ensure job security. Therefore, the behaviors of city managers can vary depending on whether they are diagonally advanced or internally promoted.

Overall, the study of ambition theory provides a useful framework for understanding how the different types of ambition can influence the career path and behaviors of city managers. Examining the motivations and strategies of city managers with progressive, static, and discrete ambition provides insights into the factors that drive their decision-making and behavior in public management.

Professionalism

The professionalization of local government administration has been a critical development in American cities, seeking to enhance government efficacy and meet the needs of citizens. The rise of professional administrators, such as city managers or Chief Administrative Officers (CAOs), at the beginning of the twentieth century marked a departure from traditional political administration and a focus on the significance of professionalism in public administration. This shift was rooted in a broader debate on the role of government and the potential benefits of separating politics and administration. Proponents of the professionalization movement argued that technical officials with specialized knowledge and skills should manage public administration instead of elected officials who may be more sensitive to political considerations (Cayer et al., 2014; Nelson & Svara, 2015; Svara, 1990).

The idea of separating public administration from politics has a storied past, rooted in Wilson's (1887) argument that public administration is a technical field that requires technical officials to manage rather than being less influenced by political pressure. This argument was later expanded on by scholars like Carl Friedrich (1940), who emphasized the functional responsibility of public administrators and proposed that they should make decisions based on scientific evidence and professional knowledge rather than following political directives. Friedrich argued that the separation of politics and administration would lead to more rational and efficient decision-making in government (Friedrich, 1940; Plant, 2011).

The urban reform movement of the early twentieth century put these ideas into practice with the adoption of the council-manager form of government (Nelson & Stenberg, 2017; Pendergrass, 1975). This form of government aimed to effectuate the separation of politics and administration by establishing professional norms for city managers and maintaining organizational structures that facilitated this norm. Over time, the council-manager form of government became increasingly prevalent, particularly among medium to large local governments, and its success has contributed to a growing number of municipalities adopting this system (Boise & Rowe, 1974; ICMA, 2018). However, this approach has its challenges, as it may lead to tension between representativeness, responsiveness, and accountability, which are key elements of the political approach to public administration (Rosenbloom, 1983; Stewart, 1985). Nonetheless, the commitment of public administrators to make decisions based on scientific evidence and professional knowledge remains a critical aspect of the functional responsibility of public administration.

As the professionalization of local government administration has evolved, many organizations have developed educational programs and certifications to support the ongoing development of chief administrative officials (DeHoog & Whitaker, 1993). Professional certification in city management attests to an individual's knowledge and skills in the profession, with established norms dictating that individuals should undergo education and training through recognized organizations to maintain their expertise. This ongoing commitment to professional development impacts the perception and behavior of city managers, reinforcing the importance of making decisions based on scientific evidence and professional knowledge. By ensuring that city managers meet established quality standards and possess the necessary skills and knowledge, professional certification supports the broader goals of enhancing government efficacy and meeting the needs of citizens.

Furthermore, some studies suggest that city managers with a positive perception of public participation are more likely to involve the public in decision-making processes, a perception that can be influenced by the education and training provided by professional organizations (Coursey et al., 2012; Gazley, 2014; Hatcher, 2015; Liao & Schachter, 2018; Schneider & Teske, 1992). Additionally, professional learning and networking among city managers significantly impact their practices and perceptions in operating local government. Finally, professional certification can also impact the careers of public workers, as evidenced by studies showing the significance of networking and credentials in promotional chances (Dewatripont et al., 1999; Ishida et al., 1997; Rastovski, 2021; Teodoro, 2011). Research suggests that professional credentials can have a far-reaching impact on the performance, practices, and perception of city managers in multiple ways.

While professionalism in local government administration is increasingly acknowledged as crucial, the motivation of city managers to pursue professionalism is not sufficiently addressed in the literature. The interaction between career path and pursuit of professionalism can show one of the main mechanisms of how city managers in a council-manager form of government can be motivated to pursue more professionalism.

This paper focuses primarily on the professional credentialing program the International City/County Management Association (ICMA) offers. ICMA is a nationally recognized professional organization that plays a crucial role in enhancing professionalism in local government management, particularly for positions such as city manager, county manager, or Chief Administrative Official (CAO). It was established in 1914 as the City Managers’ Association to form professional norms for government operations. In 1924, ICMA adopted a code of ethics that provides comprehensive guidelines for professional urban management. This code of ethics has been periodically revised and is widely regarded as a standard that local governments expect their city managers to adhere to (Cayer et al., 2014; ICMA, 2022). In its efforts to enhance professionalism, ICMA offers various resources and programs for city managers, and its voluntary credentialing program is highly esteemed within the profession.

The ICMA credentialing program is a rigorous and time-consuming effort that entails obtaining and maintaining professional status. Initially, individuals must verify their eligibility, which varies based on their executive-level experience and academic degree (ICMA, 2022). For instance, those with an MPA degree must possess at least seven years of executive-level experience, while those with only a bachelor's degree must have at least nine years of experience. Once the eligibility criteria are met, city managers must take an assessment to evaluate their knowledge in 17 different core content areas. After completing the assessment, they must apply for the ICMA credentialing program and submit a professional development plan to reviewers in the ICMA organization. Once the ICMA credentialed status is attained, managers must renew their status annually by reporting completed professional development activities in their development plan and undergo a comprehensive assessment every five years (Buchanan, 2017).

Despite the demanding nature of the process, approximately 1,500 executive-level public servants have obtained ICMA credentialing certification. While the credentialing program has gained popularity in the field of local government management, there has been a lack of active examination regarding the motivations behind pursuing ICMA credentialing and the program's effects. Conversely, considerable attention has been given to studies on MPA degrees in local management. Therefore, this study aims to provide unique insights into the field of urban management by exploring the relationship between city managers’ career paths and their motivations for pursuing ICMA credentialing.

Ambitious Career Paths and Professional Credentials

I hypothesize that city managers on diagonal career paths are more inclined to obtain additional professional certifications due to ambition. The birth of the council-manager form of government is intended to facilitate professionalism in operating local government by separating administration from politics (Cayer et al., 2014; Floro, 1955). Therefore, the professionalism of city managers is considered an essential competency when council members make decisions in the recruitment process (Boise & Rowe, 1974; Watson & Hassett, 2004). However, not all city managers actively pursue professionalism, but it seems that only some city managers have stronger motivation to pursue professionalism.

In light of the previous literature, the career paths of city managers can be closely associated with the motivations to pursue professionalism (Teodoro, 2011). City managers’ career paths can be divided into two main routes: advancement within the organization (ladder career) and advancement through relocation to other cities (diagonal career). Although some studies have explored the nuances of city managers’ career paths, they can be broadly categorized into these two routes (Watson & Hassett, 2004). These two different routes can be led by the different types of ambition that the city manager has, and the different ambitions would lead the city managers to behave differently for a successful career goal.

Ambition theory serves as a useful framework for understanding the career strategies that city managers can adopt based on their chosen career path, providing valuable insights into the factors that shape their professional development and success. According to ambition theory, city managers with progressive aspirations to attain higher administrative positions are more inclined to showcase their professional competence and achievements. This includes the successful execution of innovative policies and the operation of their government to demonstrate competencies, such as interlocal agreements to enhance their financial conditions. These studies focus on whether progressively ambitious administrators strive to demonstrate their performance at the institutional level. However, analyzing the behavior of chief administrators at this institutional level has two limitations.

Firstly, while it is true that administrators significantly influence policy implementation or the daily operation of government, such a level of decision can be heavily affected by various external factors. Regardless of personal motivation, those decisions can be thwarted or propelled by external elements, such as political stability and the local government's available human/capital resources. Therefore, without controlling for these external factors, analysis at the institutional level may be limited. Secondly, reverse causality can be an issue for the institutional level of decision-making. Specifically, if a local government is inherently innovative and thus seeks external newcomers, the organization might have a higher demand for more innovative policies, regardless of the administrator's ambition. Therefore, studying the individual efforts of administrators and their career paths can yield more precise results than examining efforts at the organizational level.

In summary, progressively ambitious city managers refer those who want to increasingly move to a larger city that may provide better benefits or compensation. When ambitious city managers move to another city, the successful strategy will show professionalism to potential employers. Professional certification can have practical implications for local government operations by enhancing their skills and knowledge. Council members may view such certifications as a signal that the city managers possess more seasoned expertise and qualifications for the professional operation of the government. This leads to the hypothesis:

City managers on diagonal career paths are more likely to have obtained International City/County Management Association (ICMA) credentialing certification.

Data

This paper tests whether city managers who diagonally move from other cities are more likely to acquire professional certification. The study used two distinct datasets. The first dataset examines the career path of city managers in California, Florida, and North Carolina between 2012 and 2023. The reason for selecting these three states is their availability of official records that identify cities operating under council-manager or council-mayor forms of government. The second dataset is derived from job posting information available on the ICMA website, which serves as an online platform for local governments to advertise job openings. This dataset includes details such as the year, month of job postings, and qualification of candidates, enabling tracking of whether city managers were hired after the postings and whether they were recruited externally or internally promoted¹.

Eleven-Year Dataset: Career Paths of City Managers in California, Florida, and North Carolina (2012–2023)

To test the hypothesis, the dependent variable is whether city managers have professional accreditation, and the independent variable is whether the city managers are hired from an external city (diagonal mover)². For the first dataset, I collected data on all city managers in North Carolina, California, and Florida council-manager governments. There are 262 cities among 552 cities in North Carolina (47.5%), 435 cities among 482 cities in California (90.2%), and 272 cities among 412 cities in Florida (66.0%) that currently have the council-manager form of Government³.

In the paper, ICMA credentialing is the dependent variable. ICMA provides the credentialed manager list on its website. In the sample states, 139 city managers of the 970 North Carolina, California, and Florida cities are credentialed by ICMA (14.3%). To be specific, 56 city managers of the 263 cities that are currently adopting the council-manager form in North Carolina (21.3%), 42 city managers out of the 435 council-manager form cities in California (9.7%), and 41 city managers out of the 272 council-manager form cities in Florida (15.1%) have ICMA credentials. The dependent variable is binary, coded as one if the city manager holds ICMA certification and zero if they do not.

For the independent variable, the information on whether the city managers are hired from other cities or promoted from the internal department is used. In order to determine the city manager's career path, I began by examining LinkedIn. Many city managers use LinkedIn to develop their networking and job searching by uploading their career backgrounds on the website. LinkedIn provides educational backgrounds, past career paths, and demographic information for many city managers. For city managers without LinkedIn, government websites and newspaper articles were used to collect the educational background and career paths of city managers. I tracked the career path of the city managers in the dataset from 2012 to 2023. If a city manager is from a different city to the current one, I coded them as diagonally moved. On the other hand, if a city manager is hired from a different position within the current city, I coded them as internally moved. Specifically, the independent variable is coded from the resources, indicating “1” is hired from the external pool and “0” is advanced from the internal pool. Table 1 illustrates that 50.1% of the total city managers in the sampled states are recruited externally, representing a roughly equal distribution between individuals hired internally and those hired externally.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics (Career Paths of City Managers in the Three States).

	mean	std	min	max
Dependent Variable
Credentialed	0.143	0.351	0	1
Independent Variables
Diagonal Career Path	0.501	0.500	0	1
Male	0.767	0.423	0	1
White	0.637	0.481	0	1
MPA	0.426	0.495	0	1

In the dataset, an MPA degree held by a city manager is used as a control variable. According to the ICMA credentialing eligibility criteria, the minimum required experience at the executive level of employment varies based on the educational degree of administrators (ICMA, 2022). This indicates that city managers with an MPA degree are subject to different standards, which may influence their motivation toward ICMA credentialing due to varying eligibility criteria. Therefore, I include the MPA degree as one of the control variables in the model.

In addition, demographic information such as age, gender, and race are commonly used to test hypotheses about the career paths of city managers (Aguado & Frederickson, 2012; Liao & Ma, 2019; Teodoro, 2011). Previous research has indicated that female city managers may have different career challenges that require distinct strategies for advancement as a minority group in the career field (Aguado & Frederickson, 2012; Hatcher et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022). In this dataset, around 77% of city managers in the three states are male, confirming that female city managers may have faced different challenges in getting job opportunities. In this condition, the female city managers would have stronger motivation to pursue the additional certification to overcome the disadvantage of minority candidates.

Additionally, due to the preponderance of white males in the city manager job market, with approximately 68% of city managers in North Carolina, California, and Florida identifying as white, potential disparities among non-white racial groups and gender groups in motivation and success strategies are acknowledged and controlled for by including race as a control variable. To determine gender and race, I use the Namsor package, which leverages first and last names as indicators to make assumptions about gender and race⁴. The names and demographic information of city managers in the sample were collected from various sources, including LinkedIn, government websites, and newspaper articles, ultimately allowing for the generation of gender and race variables through this process.

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of the dataset collected from the council-manager form of government in North Carolina, California, and Florida. Despite efforts to increase diversity, the data suggests that the city manager role remains male and white-dominated, with 76.7 percent of the city managers being male and 63.7 percent white. Regarding education, 42.6 percent of city managers in this dataset have obtained an MPA degree.

Job Posting Data from ICMA Website

In the study of the career path and behaviors of chief administrators, a limitation was the exclusive focus on the relationship between the career path and ex-post behaviors. This limitation is also present in this study, as the inability to determine the exact time of credential acquisition complicates the assessment of whether city managers were externally hired with existing credentials or if they obtained ICMA credentialing after being hired. However, using job posting data between a short window period offers a potential alternative approach. Due to the comprehensive requirements of the ICMA credentialing process, it is rare for individuals hired within this short window to secure ICMA credentialing post-appointment. As a result, this job posting data provides a clearer analysis, focusing on the career paths mainly chosen by those who acquired their credentials beforehand.

To be specific, I collected job posting data from the ICMA website. This dataset includes job postings of local governments in the United States from November 2021 to March 2023. Unlike the first dataset, the job posting data encompasses appointed chief administrator positions in both council-manager and mayor-council forms of government, specifically those involving chief administrator roles within municipalities or counties in the United States. A total of 443 job postings for top-appointed officials were identified, with 46 states posting advertisements seeking top-appointed administrators. Among these states, California had the most job postings, with 60 positions advertised by municipalities and counties, followed by Texas with 43 positions.

The independent and dependent variables and the coding mechanism remain consistent with the first dataset. The independent variable captures whether the top-appointed administrator was on a diagonal career or ladder career, while the dependent variable indicates whether the hired top-appointed administrator possesses ICMA credentials. Table 2 presents the findings, revealing that 15.7 percent of the 381 top-appointed administrators in the dataset possess ICMA credentials. Furthermore, 72.3 percent of the 379 hired administrators were externally recruited. Control variables such as MPA degree, gender, and race were also included, similar to the first dataset.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics (Job Posting).

	mean	std	min	max
Dependent Variable
Credentialed	0.157	0.365	0	1
Independent Variables
Diagonal Career Path	0.723	0.448	0	1
Male	0.760	0.428	0	1
White	0.760	0.428	0	1
MPA	0.618	0.487	0	1

Descriptive statistics displayed in Table 2 highlight key insights from the second dataset. Based on this dataset, 76 percent of the top appointed administrators are male and of white ethnicity, consistent with patterns observed in the first dataset. Additionally, 61.8 percent of these administrators hold an MPA degree.

In addition, Table 3 presents the percentage of ICMA credentialed managers by career path across different states and job posting data. Notably, the data indicates a consistent pattern concerning the impact of ICMA credentials on career progression. Specifically, city managers with ICMA credentials are more likely to move diagonally than their non-credentialed counterparts. For instance, in North Carolina, 73 percent of city managers with ICMA credentials are on a diagonal career, whereas only 53 percent of those without credentials are on a diagonal career. This trend is also evident in California and Florida, where around 61 percent of city managers with ICMA credentials in both states are diagonally moved, compared to only 47 percent in California and 41 percent in Florida for non-credentialed city managers. Overall, the data suggests that 65.9 percent of ICMA-credentialed city managers are diagonally moved, while 34.1 percent of non-credentialed city managers are on diagonal career paths. In the second dataset, the pattern becomes more evident. A striking 86.7 percent of ICMA-CM (International City/County Management Association Credentialed Managers) were on diagonal career paths, whereas only 69.8 percent of non ICMA-credentialed managers were on diagonal career paths. According to Table 3, a discernible heterogeneity can be observed between ICMA credentialed managers and their non-credentialed counterparts. This disparity finds additional substantiation through rigorous statistical analysis, further supporting the trend.

Table 3.

Percentage of ICMA-CM for Each Career Path of the Three States and Job Posting Dataset.

Dataset	Credential	Diagonal Career Path	Ladder Career Path
NC	ICMA-CM	73.08%	26.92%
NC	Not ICMA-CM	53.33%	46.67%
CA	ICMA-CM	60.98%	39.02%
CA	Not ICMA-CM	47.31%	52.69%
FL	ICMA-CM	61.54%	38.46%
FL	Not ICMA-CM	41.21%	58.79%
Job Posting	ICMA-CM	86.67%	13.34%
Job Posting	Not ICMA-CM	69.81%	30.19%
Total	ICMA-CM	65.91%	47.14%
Total	Not ICMA-CM	34.09%	52.86%

Model

Since the dependent variable is whether the top appointed administrators have ICMA credentials as binary⁵, I use a logit model in order to test my hypothesis regarding career paths and credentialing. The model presents ICMA credentialing as a function of diagonal career path, gender, race, MPA attainment, and a stochastic error term (εi) described below:

ICMA_{credentialed}_{i} = Diagonally_Mov e_{i} + {male}_{i} + {race}_{i} + {MPA}_{i +} ε_{i}

Since the research employed two datasets which is from different resources, the detailed model specification is different. The three-state dataset, including California, Florida, and North Carolina, has four models. Model 1 represents a single-variable regression, while Model 2 serves as the primary model incorporating controls for gender, race, and possession of an MPA degree. Model 3 further incorporates state-fixed effects along with the control variables from Model 2. In Model 4, clustered standard errors are used to adjust the standard errors due to the data being clustered by North Carolina, California, and Florida states. The observations are collected from these three states, each potentially having different practices and shared standards in the hiring process. Consequently, the potential correlation among observations grouped into clusters may negatively impact the estimation of standard errors. Therefore, Model 4 addresses these potential clustering issues by utilizing clustering standard error adjustment.

In contrast to the first dataset, the job posting dataset possesses distinct characteristics. It is not collected from a clustered group, rendering the clustering standard error unnecessary. Consequently, three models were employed for the second dataset. Model 1 comprises a single-variable regression analysis to examine the sole relationship between career paths and the possession of ICMA credentials. Model 2 extends the analysis by incorporating control variables such as MPA degree, gender, and race. To ensure a precise adjustment of the standard error, Model 3 applies robust standard error estimation.

Results

The findings derived from both datasets consistently establish a significant relationship between career paths and the acquisition of ICMA credentials. Table 4 reports the results of each model, with the dependent variable representing whether a city manager has ICMA credentials or not. The results of Table 4 support the suggested hypothesis consistently in that the coefficients for the career path variable are statistically significant at the 0.05 level⁶. Notably, the impact of career path is more evident when interpreting the coefficients. For example, in Model 2, the logit regression coefficient for the career path variable is 0.461, indicating that city managers on diagonal career paths are approximately 6.5 percent more likely to have ICMA credentials than those hired internally.

Table 4.

Logit Models Predicting ICMA Credentialing Program Motivation (Three States Dataset).

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	Credentialed		Credentialed		Credentialed		Credentialed
	Coefficient	Marginal Effect	Coefficient	Marginal Effect	Coefficient	Marginal Effect	Coefficient	Marginal Effect
Diagonal Career	0.777***	0.102***	0.461**	0.065**	0.426*	0.059**	0.426***	0.059***
	0.20	0.03	0.21	0.21	0.22	0.03	0.09	0.01
Male			−0.019	−0.003	−0.055	−0.008	−0.055	−0.008
			0.25	0.25	0.25	0.04	0.19	0.03
White			0.088	0.013	0.004	0.001	0.004	0.001
			0.22	0.22	0.22	0.03	0.05	0.01
MPA			0.788***	0.112***	0.748***	0.102***	0.748***	0.103***
			0.21	0.21	0.22	0.03	0.12	0.02
constant	−2.107***		−2.218***		−2.599***		−2.599***
	0.16		0.28		0.31		0.34
State FE	No		No		Yes		Yes
Clustering S.E	No		No		No		Yes
N	831		682		682		682

Note. statistical significance is denoted by asterisks. A single asterisk indicates significance at the 0.10 level, two asterisks indicate significance at the 0.05 level, and three asterisks indicate significance at the 0.01 level.

Model 4 provides noteworthy findings, as the coefficient of the career path variable is 0.546, indicating that city managers on diagonal career paths are 7.47 percent more likely to obtain ICMA credentials than those internally promoted. This result highlights the influence of career paths on the pursuit of professional development among city managers. The findings suggest that those who enter a city government position from an external pool may have stronger motivations to demonstrate their qualifications and professional standards through obtaining ICMA credentials than those who are promoted from within the organization.

Table 4 demonstrates that the presence of an MPA degree has a statistically significant impact on whether city managers pursue ICMA certification. Model 4 indicates that the odds of obtaining ICMA credentials for city managers with an MPA degree are approximately 10 percent higher than those without one⁷.

Table 5 presents the results of each model based on the job posting data. Model 1 reveals statistically significant findings, indicating that chief administrative officials who follow a diagonal career path are 11.3 percent more likely to possess ICMA credentials. This trend consistently emerges in Model 2 and Model 3, although the statistical power diminishes. In Model 2, the results indicate an 8.1 percent higher likelihood of ICMA credential possession among appointed chief administrators who have advanced diagonally to their positions. These results remain consistent even when applying robust standard error estimation, with the coefficient remaining statistically significant at the 0.10 level. Given the directional nature of this paper's hypothesis, I adopted the criteria for a one-tailed test to evaluate the significance of the results appropriately. Consequently, these findings confirm the statistically significant relationship between the career paths of appointed chief administrators across the three states (California, Florida, and North Carolina) and suggest a nationwide trend. Furthermore, it is important to note that this relationship extends beyond the behavior of city managers and includes appointed chief administrators as a whole.

Table 5.

Logit Models Predicting ICMA Credentialing Program Motivation (Job Posting Dataset).

	Model1		Model 2		Model 3
	Credentialed		Credentialed		Credentialed
	Coefficient	Marginal Effect	Coefficient	Marginal Effect	Coefficient	Marginal Effect
Diagonal Career	1.033***	0.113***	0.701*	0.081*	0.701*	0.081*
	0.40	0.04	0.42	0.04	0.41	0.04
Male			−0.184	−0.025	−0.184	−0.025
			0.36	0.05	0.35	0.05
White			0.626*	0.074*	0.626*	0.074*
			0.37	0.04	0.38	0.04
MPA			1.452***	0.173***	1.452***	0.173***
			0.39	0.04	0.40	0.04
constant	−2.485***		−3.453***		−3.453***
	0.37		0.60		0.61
Robust S.E	No		No		Yes
N	378		326		326

Conclusion

This paper has two important findings. First, city managers on a diagonal career path are more likely to possess ICMA credentialing. The second is that the relationship between this career path and credentialing is not because local governments seeking to hire city managers from an external pool strongly prefer professional city managers. Instead, it is because there is a higher distribution of individuals who pursue professionalism more vigorously among those city managers who choose a diagonal career path⁸.

The findings presented in this paper provide empirical support for the proposed hypothesis that city managers on diagonal career paths have a stronger motivation to pursue professionalism. The results suggest that external hires are more likely to attain ICMA credentials than internally advanced ones. These findings can shed light on the tendency among city managers to utilize the ICMA credentialing program. The ICMA is a well-known non-profit organization in the field, and its credentialing program provides a certification that emphasizes the professionalism of city managers. The results of this study suggest that city managers use the ICMA credentialing program to demonstrate their professionalism to potential employers. Furthermore, the results indicate that employers, such as city councils, can access larger pools of human resources comprising top-appointed administrators with ICMA credentials.

Following Wilson's argument that politics should be separated from administration, the council-manager form of government became the ideal operating system, emerging from the urban reform movement of the early twentieth century. While its inception was rooted in the normative argument of separation of politics and administration, the council-manager form of government has furthered the tendency to emphasize the professionalism of city managers by establishing the career paths that city managers have faced. Local governments may have various reasons for hiring city managers from external candidates, such as a lack of appropriate candidates in their internal pool or the belief that the quality of candidates would be better from an external pool. Regardless of the reason, this hiring system stimulates the motivation for city managers to pursue professionalism, as it incentivizes them to showcase their professional quality to potential employers, making them more competitive in the job market.

Although this study successfully demonstrated that city managers who pursue a diagonal career path are more likely to possess ICMA credentials, as examined by the job posting dataset, the results do not provide conclusive evidence to establish a causal inference between the career paths of top appointed administrators and their motivation to seek professional development. The lack of data on the year when city managers were credentialed by ICMA prevented a more explicit examination of the effect of ICMA credentials by comparing the career path before and after the credentialing process.

The relationship between gender or racial minority status and professionalism presents another promising avenue for future research. Despite ongoing efforts toward diversity and inclusion, only 13 percent of all chief administrative officer positions are occupied by women, the same percentage as in 1981 (Vorhees and Lee-Skaggs, 2014). This indicates that the city administrator position remains predominantly male and white, with minimal progress over time. Investigating whether professionalism serves to mitigate or exacerbate gender and race disparities could offer academically and practically significant contributions.

Furthermore, from a theoretical perspective, this study only examined how the council-manager system can facilitate professionalism in urban affairs from the perspective of city managers. It does not address which types of local governments prefer to hire city managers from an external pool and why they value professionalism in city management. It is plausible that the preference for more professional city managers could be associated with various demographic characteristics of local governments, such as population, financial condition, or partisanship. Alternatively, it may be linked to the perceptions of elected officials regarding professionalism in the field. It suggests that conducting a study that involves comprehensive surveys targeting elected officials and gathering demographic information about local government would provide valuable insights into the dynamics between elected officials and professional managers. Such research would contribute to a more thorough understanding of the factors influencing the hiring and professional development of city managers.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Jiwoong Jung

Notes

Author Biography

Jiwoong Jung is an Assistant Professor at Murray State University. His current research explores the professionalism of local government management, with a specific focus on the role and impact of appointed chief administrators in U.S. local governments.

Appendix

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