Experiential Learning Projects

Abstract

Marketing managers best equipped to transfer their knowledge across increasingly complex and dynamic market contexts will be those who have learned to frame managerial decisions in terms of the broad moral, political, and social contexts in which those decisions reside. Undergraduate marketing curricula that emphasize the study of micro-marketing topics rather than macromarketing topics have not delivered the critical thinking skills marketing students need to function and adapt to increasingly dynamic business environments. Experiential Learning Theory offers a framework for instructors to design projects that incorporate systems-level perspectives while encouraging rigorous marketing decision-making. We review literature on experiential learning to highlight how aspects of experience-based pedagogy align with the aims of macromarketing education. Then we describe two projects as examples of how experience-based projects teach managerial decision-making and foster understanding of the broader societal role of marketing. We propose using experience-based projects as pedagogical tools that deliver on the field’s commitment to managerial education and restore marketing education to its systems-level roots.

Keywords

experiential learning macromarketing education service learning

Introduction

Marketing curricula once emphasized study of a systems-oriented perspective reflecting the intricate relationship between marketing and social and natural systems. However, a fragmentation of marketing research, a growth in PhD programs, an expansion of specialized journals, and high demand for MBA graduates, all contributed to a movement away from a systems approach toward a managerial approach to marketing education (Wilkie and Moore 2003; Witkowski 2005). A drive to measure and apply scientific principles to managerial decisions that predominates marketing education has not delivered the critical thinking skills so sorely needed for marketing students to be able to function and adapt in a changing marketing landscape (Tadajewski 2010). Pedagogical approaches predominated by micro-managerial perspectives overlook issues like marketing ethics and consumer vulnerability (Bradshaw and Tadajewski 2011), fail to recognize the developmental potential of marketing to affect positive social change (Peterson 2013; Reppel 2012), and fail to acknowledge that marketing at its core is a societal institution (Layton 2008).

Defining macromarketing as a sub-discipline of marketing, while pragmatically necessary for its emergence in the 1970s (Wilkie and Moore 2003; Wilkie and Moore 2006), has proven a disservice to the field of marketing (Shultz 2007). The bifurcation between micro- and macro-marketing underscores a challenge for marketing educators to reintroduce systems-level topics as implicit issues in core marketing curricula. Historically, when macromarketing topics have competed with micro/strategy topics for limited space in marketing curricula, macromarketing topics have fared poorly (Benton 1985). Social marketing is addressed in many foundational marketing textbooks, however, upper division marketing curricula largely exclude courses focused on the broad moral, political, and social contexts of marketing (Catterall, Maclaran, and Stevens 2002). The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) accreditation lists sustainability (Kilbourne and Carlson 2008; Mintu and Lozada 1993) and ethics (Brennen et al. 2010) as priorities for business education. Nonetheless, very few business schools offer such courses (Shapiro 2012). Among the Financial Times top 25 MBA programs, only nine include one or more courses that reflect a systems-level perspective of marketing (e.g. social impact of marketing, corporate social responsibility, and marketing, society and government). Only three of those 25 schools offer such courses at the undergraduate level. While there are some notable exceptions (Kilbourne 2008; Peterson 2012; Radford and Hunt 2008; Shapiro 2008), little evidence suggests that macromarketing is being well integrated into core marketing curricula. Failure to move beyond the belief that the purpose of marketing education is to improve managers’ marketing decisions and failure to integrate societal issues into marketing curricula will render the field increasingly irrelevant (Holbrook 2005a).

The micromarketing bias in marketing education is troubling not because educators have prioritized a managerial perspective over a systems perspective. It is troubling because by doing so, educators have undermined delivery of the very managerial decision-making skills they aim to foster in the first place. The best strategic decision-makers are distinguished by their ability to position their companies advantageously, while operating within the same external landscape as their competitors (Peterson 2013). Despite decades of developments in marketing education the question remains: How best can marketing education simultaneously foster development of managerial decision-making skills and instill a broad understanding of the role of marketing in society? The goals for students to learn marketing as both a managerial process and a societal function are not mutually exclusive. Rather, managerial rigor depends upon the degree to which educational efforts reflect real marketing decision-making (Bradshaw and Tadajewski 2011). And all marketing decision-making occurs in the context of the macromarket (Mittelstaedt, Kilbourne, and Mittelstaedt 2006).

Macro-oriented experiential learning projects allow instructors to integrate systems-level analysis with rigorous managerial decision-making experiences and help students understand marketing decision-making as constructive engagement with societal functions (Shultz 2007). We review literature on experiential learning and critical thinking to highlight the value of experiential learning projects as a pedagogical path to learning managerial macromarketing – “macromarketing for sustainable enterprise” (Peterson 2012, p. 393). Experience-based projects allow instructors to deliver marketing content holistically, connect marketing to broader disciplines, and connect learners to each other in collaborative environments that reinforce development of problem-solving and interpersonal skills. Drawing on the aligned goals of experiential learning and macromarketing education, we review two approaches to using experienced-based projects in marketing courses: non-profits as beneficiaries and social marketing to provide examples of how experience-based projects have been used to teach managerial decision-making and foster an understanding of the broader societal role of marketing. Based on descriptions of two sample projects, we summarize how instructors can use experiential learning theory as a frame to develop marketing projects that deliver on the field’s commitment to managerial education and restore marketing education to its systems-level roots.

Experiential Learning

Experiential learning theory is based on the teaching philosophies of Dewey (1938), Lewin (1951), and Piaget (1951) and subsequently synthesized by Kolb (1984) into a model for higher education. For Kolb (1984), learning is conceptualized as a continuous process grounded in experiences and opportunities to reflect on those experiences (Frontczak and Kelley 2000). Experience-based activities and assessments require students to take responsibility for their own progress and deal with complex issues in context. The requirement to deal with issues “in context” is why experience-based projects are particularly well-suited to deliver macromarketing content (Hernandez 2002).

Experience is transformed into knowledge (Kolb 1984) through four distinct modes of learning: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation (Kolb and Kolb 2005). Kolb and colleagues (2001, p. 194 - emphasis in original) state,

Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observations and reflections. These reflections are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn. These implications can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences.

Figure 1 illustrates how learners progress through all four learning modes, begin the cycle again, and continue in subsequent iterations. In each iterative cycle, learners gain new perspective that is gleaned from earlier experiences (Saunders 1997). Over time, learning reflects a spiral process where individuals move from knowledge acquisition to specialization and then to integration as they develop higher levels of cognitive functioning and improve their ability to handle increased complexity (Kolb 1984).

Figure 1.

Experiential learning process (Adapted from Elam and Spotts 2004; Saunders 1997).

Experiential learning leads to higher levels of learning and engagement (Gujarathi and McQuade 2002); better understanding of complex concepts (Udovic et al. 2002); improved problem solving ability (Zoller 1987); greater retention of material taught (McKeachie 1980); increased higher-order cognitive processing of problem solving and judgement (Feinstein 2001); and academic, personal, social, and career development (Eyler et al. 2001). The focus on complex issues, critical reasoning, resolution of conflicting frames, contextual grounding, and reflection, makes experiential learning particularly well-suited to deliver managerial rigor and infuse marketing curricula with a systems-level perspective.

Experiential learning is most effective when learning mechanisms closely reflect lived experiences (Elam and Spotts 2004). Feinstein, Mann, and Corsun (2002, p. 733) describe experiential learning as a “…participatory method of learning that involves a variety of a person’s mental capabilities. It exists when a learner processes information in an active and immersive learning environment.” While scholars have proposed a number of different approaches to incorporate experiential learning in the classroom (Gentry 1990), few have described how experience-based projects can maintain managerial rigor while at the same time incorporate a broad, societal perspective of marketing.

Two Experience-Based Projects

Experiential learning projects require learners to deal with marketing problems in context. In this section, we review two experience-based projects we have implemented in our own marketing courses. Both projects incorporate the four pillars of experiential learning and integrate key macromarketing dimensions (Peterson 2013) such as quality-of-life, ethics, environment, and systems perspective into micro-oriented marketing courses. The first example, non-profits as beneficiaries of service-learning, describes a service-learning project with non-profit organizations as focal clients for the student projects. This project allowed students to work closely with a non-profit firm and introduced systems theory and quality of life. The second example, social entrepreneurship, describes a project where students were tasked with employing marketing principles to tackle broad societal problems. In this project, students were challenged to develop their critical thinking skills, while at the same time incorporate into their marketing decision-making broad dimensions, such as history, poverty, ethics, and quality of life.

Non-Profits as Beneficiaries of Service-Learning

Many non-profit organizations can benefit from student engagement in service-learning activities. The focus of most examples and cases in the business curriculum is on for-profit organizations. Yet, arts organizations, charities, and other non-profits share many characteristics with traditional business, so as project topics they are not “cheating” students of traditional marketing learning. However, the challenges of these organizations require students to develop a greater appreciation for how markets and marketing connect to broader social issues. Non-profit based projects can be designed around a range of macromarketing topics including human rights, environmental sustainability, and public health. The current example draws from a senior-level Arts and Culture marketing elective. The course gives students experiences applying marketing concepts to non-profit arts organizations and helps students recognize unique challenges non-profit arts organizations face in terms of generating income and pricing, positioning the product, and developing audiences. The course emphasizes active student learning and engagement through regular in-class discussion or readings and cases, visits with the marketers from local arts organization, and a “live” case writing group project with a local organization. While this course addresses arts marketing, similar projects could be designed for other courses such as marketing management, marketing communications, or product management.

Arts marketing has been a topic of interest to macromarketers for a number of years (Holbrook 2005b), as there is a recognition that arts organizations are more closely tied to system and social issues, than traditional organizations. For example, revenue is often tied into philanthropic donations, government funding, and sponsorship, all of which tend to diminish first in times of economic recession. Arts organizations are repositories of cultural knowledge and as a result they hold an esteemed position in society and they have a responsibility that is greater than exchange. In other words, even if potential audiences are not willing to pay for it, they hold a responsibility to society to preserve these works, push the boundaries of norms and standards, and challenge people out of their comfort zone. Finally, the arts also define the competitive market much differently than traditional for-profits. Competition is somewhat more collaborative as arts marketers recognize that they are not just promoting their own product, but the arts in general, while at the same time competing for their own financial survival and share of wallet. Therefore, the subtleties of arts marketing offer numerous opportunities for students to understand the importance of the greater macro issues surrounding marketing. But this could be extended to any non-profit context as they have similar community engagement challenges.

Seven local non-profit arts organizations, including theatres, festivals, art galleries, and dance companies were identified by the instructor prior to the beginning of the semester. The seven clients attend the class and present a short description of their organization and some of the challenges that they face. Based on this presentation students rank their preferred clients and they are assigned to groups based on these choices. Each client was at a turning point for their organization and the students created 1) a research design that suggested innovative ways for the clients to gather research on a limited budget, 2) a case writing exercise, and 3) a case analysis of the newly written case. Students were required to work closely with the arts organization to identify challenges and propose solutions to these challenges.

The project provided opportunities for the four types of experiential learning and each learning type contributed to the exposure to macromarketing concepts. Early in the semester students were assigned to one of the seven client companies. Students met with the client company, and some were invited to performances or presentations by the client organizations. The first step for most student groups was to conduct secondary research and interviews to learn as much as they could about the organization. These concrete experiences helped students to identify and understand the challenges that faced the arts organizations.

Students then needed to evaluate and conceptualize their experiences based on marketing theories and concepts. This process of abstract conceptualization required that students understand the greater context within which the organization was operating. In this context they needed to understand local policies on arts and culture, citizenship and engagement of the local community, and the value placed on the arts by the community. Once they understood the organization and its place in the wider system, students were expected to develop actionable, realistic solutions to the challenges that the client faced. This active experimentation, provided students with the opportunity to challenge the current practices of the organization, propose directions for future marketing activities, and communicate these in a way that the organization could understand.

The final components of the project encouraged reflective observation. Over the course of the semester students met with a graduate assistant twice to ensure that they were making progress on the project and that they understood and were addressing the client’s needs. Students were required to submit a short one-page summary of their progress that formed the bases of this reflective exercise. In addition to this, the final project was separated into two different components. Students first completed the case writing exercise. Then students were challenged to write a case analysis of the case that they had just written. This required them to go back and re-evaluate their own work and communicate their observations in two different ways.

By engaging with non-profit organizations throughout the semester, this course offered students the opportunity to develop a greater appreciation for the impact of systems on marketing organizations. Because non-profit organizations are not solely oriented around transactional relationships between two parties, students were faced with challenging marketing problems that required them to forge a greater understanding of the wider social systems. Students needed to expand their knowledge beyond simply the beneficiaries of the firms’ services, to the impact on the wider community, the relationship with government, and the responsibility of preserving cultural artefacts. Many students who have taken this class have continued to volunteer with arts organizations and non-profits or have pursued careers in arts marketing and administration.

Social Marketing and Entrepreneurship

This experience-based project challenged students to explore marketing techniques and principles in a unique way. Social marketing is the application of commercial marketing principles to social issues (Hastings 2007) driven by the need to engage people in social change and deliver social value to benefit individuals and society (Domegan and Bringle 2010). This project turned students’ attention to large social issues broadening their exposure to the scope and application of marketing decision-making.

Marketing Creativity and Innovation is a senior marketing undergraduate elective that introduces students to creativity theory and the tools and techniques that foster individual, team and organizational creativity and innovation. It is an unusual course within a traditional marketing curriculum. The course explores myths of creativity and introduces students to the importance of creativity in marketing decision-making and in society. The course helps students debunk many common myths about creativity such as the “aha” or “eureka” moment, the myth that creativity is a personality trait, and the myth that creative thinkers use only left-brain thinking. Individual assignments encourage students to explore aspects of creativity and innovation in ways that traditional, more technical innovation management courses cannot. For example, students often struggle with the importance of metaphor in marketing. One individual assignment requires students to use music metaphors to tell the story of a brand. The mix of individual writing assignments, interactive class activities and discussion, together with the term project, prepares students to understand uncertainty and the value of critical thinking skills in a macro context.

The group project provides students with an opportunity to research, understand, and find creative, marketing-related solutions to an important social issue. This includes exploration of their topics through their research, critical thinking through the analysis of their research, and creativity in their solutions and recommendations. Student groups are randomly assigned a social issue as the focal subject for their project. Social issues have included poverty, discrimination, healthcare, violence, citizenship, human trafficking, and water. Students begin their project with that one word. Students have expressed concern about the scope of the project and about their lack of familiarity and understanding of the underlying causes and effects of major social issues. To help mitigate uncertainty, project instructions guide students through an approach to research the problem, understand underlying causes, identify key stakeholders, and evaluate costs and consequences to society. No readings related to the group project are assigned. Each group is expected to do its own exploratory research on its assigned topic and to identify the organizations and government agencies involved in providing services within the context of the social issue. Requiring students to self-direct their projects increases the chance they will design marketing solutions that are truly insightful and creative (McGrath 2001).

While in the first example, the project began with grasping experiences (concrete experiences), this project began with a processing and transforming mode (abstract conceptualization) of experiential leaning. Students spend the first part of the semester in the abstract conceptualization process as they compile their research. Once they begin to understand the underlying causes and steps needed to address their social problem, students begin to see how marketing principles and concepts can be used to generate realistic solutions. Active experimentation offered the groups insights into not only those negatively touched by the social issue, but also inspiration that social issues can be mitigated through critical thinking and creativity. They begin to see the value of marketing concepts applied in an ambiguous situation to construct their own concrete experiences for solving problems.

Experiential learning can be transformative for students especially if it embraces all four stages of the process. For this project, the students are required to submit regular status reports for feedback on their progress. This provides an opportunity to work with the groups and provide support if needed. In addition, as part of their final report, they must write a section titled, “What We Learned and What We Would Do Differently.” This reflective observation is typically the most interesting to grade as well as important for the students as they complete what some describe as an emotional experience. The majority of the comments provide insights into the value of the market planning process to find creative solutions for social issues. For example, one group learned that lack of access to clean water is a major cause of poverty. Their project focussed on finding a solution for finding clean water for those living in sub-Sahara Africa. The group proposed creating partnerships between corporations and governments to provide cost-effective solutions to those without access to clean water. In contrast to the global scope of this group’s solution to poverty, another group tackled youth poverty in its own city. This group proposed creating opportunities for university students rather than professional social workers to mentor and provide emotional and social support to street kids in their late teens who do not qualify for assistance through other social programs. Former students have become impassioned about their topics and remained involved with organizations working in the interest of the issues. A group working on peer violence problems began looking for sponsors for their project and a group working on citizenship became involved in a civic election. For these students, an experience-based learning project helped transform their understandings of the broad role of marketing in society and apply their marketing decision-making skills in the interest if important social issues.

Discussion

Research on topics such as sustainability (Kilbourne and Carlson 2008), transformative consumer research (Mick et al. 2012), and marketing ethics (Laczniak and Murphy 2006), disseminated predominantly through academic journals and conferences aimed at the scholarly community, does little to infuse broader societal issues in marketing classrooms (Holbrook 2005a). The most cutting-edge macromarketing knowledge does not directly reach students preparing to solve the world’s most pressing problems. “Knowledge development and knowledge dissemination are two inseparable obligations of any field of study. Academic macromarketers, by the very position they occupy have a duty and responsibility to teach macromarketing” (Tamilia 1992, p 84). We reviewed two marketing projects that integrate macromarketing education into marketing courses. And we applied principles of experiential learning theory to evaluate the ability of those projects to deliver both managerial rigor and macromarketing insights. Together our examples illustrate how the learning goals for managerial decision-making and the learning goals for macromarketing education align.

Importantly, as a pedagogical rather than curricular tool, experiential learning projects complement approaches such as case studies and lectures already well-established in business curricula. Case studies provide contextual platforms that can help learners grapple with highly abstract concepts associated with complex market systems. Nonetheless, case analysis and other pedagogical approaches such as lectures are founded on principles of academic learning – acquiring information through study (de Stavenga Jong, Wierstra, and Hermanussen 2006). Experience-based projects, by contrast, are founded on principles of experiential learning – acquiring information through experience, observation, conceptualization, and experimentation (Kolb 1984). Experience-based projects require students to make managerial decisions with real consequences and compel learners to contemplate all aspects of their decisions, from micro to macro. While studying cases can reveal the complexities of market decisions, learning to constructively engage in marketing practice (Shultz 2007) requires experience (McCarthy and McCarthy 2006).

Learning to make astute marketing management decisions depends on the degree to which learning activities replicate the broad influences on and impacts of marketing decisions in the real world. Our examples illustrate how learning outcomes aimed at developing students’ decision-making skills and learning outcomes aimed at understanding marketing as a provisioning system can both be achieved through experiential learning projects. Experience-based projects could be designed as live cases (Elam and Spotts 2004), simulations and games (Anselmi and Frankel 2004; Saunders 1997), social ventures (Schlee, Curren, and Harich 2009), job shadows (McCarthy and McMillian 2003), or service-learning projects (Metcalf 2010; Petkus 2000; Wiese and Sherman 2011). Experience-based projects help develop students’ critical thinking skills, enhance their knowledge of the complex and dynamic context in which all businesses operate, and give educators a pedagogical tool to fulfill a fiduciary duty to teach macromarketing.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Journal of Macromarketing Editor-in-Chief Terrence Witkowski and two anonymous reviewers for their support and constructive feedback.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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